One  Thousand 
Questions  in 
California  Agricul- 
ture Answered 


One  Thousand  Questions 


in 


California  Agriculture 

Answered 


By  E.  J.  WICKSON 

Professor  of  Horticulture,  University  of  California; 
Editor  of  Pacific  Rural  Press;  Author  of 
"California  Fruits  and  How  to  Grow  Them"  and 
"  California  Vegetables  in  Garden  and  Field, " '  etc. 


PACIFIC  RURAL  PRESS 

SAN    FRANCISCO 

1914 


COPYRIGHT    iqi3 

BY 

E.   J.    WiCKSON 

AND 

Pacific  Rural  Press 


FOREWORD 


This  brochure  is  not  a  systematic  treatise  in  catechetical  form 
intended  to  cover  what  the  writer  holds  to  be  most  important  to 
know  about  California  agricultural  practices.  It  is  simply  a  classified 
arrangement  of  a  thousand  or  more  questions  which  have  been 
actually  asked,  and  to  which  answers  have  been  undertaken  through 
the  columns  of  the  Pacific  Rural  Press,  a  weekly  journal  of  agricul- 
ture published  in  San  Francisco.  Whatever  value  is  claimed  for  the 
work  is  based  upon  the  assumption  that  information,  which  about 
seven  hundred  people  have  actually  asked  for,  would  be  also  interest- 
ing and  helpful  to  thousands  of  other  people.  If  you  do  not  find  in 
this  compilation  what  you  desire  to  know,  submit  your  question  to 
the  Pacific  Rural  Press,  San  Francisco,  in  the  columns  of  which 
answers  to  agricultural  questions  are  weekly  set  forth  at  the  rate  of 
five  hundred  or  more  each  year. 

This  publication  is  therefore  intended  to  answer  a  thousand 
questions  for  you  and  to  encourage  you  to  ask  a  thousand  more. 

E.  J.   WICKSON. 


CONTENTS 


Part  I.  Fruit   Growing 

Part  II.  Vegetable    Growing 

Part  III.  Grain  and  Forage  Crops 

Part  IV.  Soils,    Irrigation,   and   Fertilizers 

Part  V.  Live  Stock  and  Dairy 

Part  VI.  Feeding    Animals 

Part  VII.  Diseases  of  Animals 

Part  VIII.  Poultry    Keeping 

Part  IX.  Pests  and  Diseases  of  Plants 

Part  X.  Index 


PART  I.    FRUIT  GROWING 

Depth  of  Soil  for  Fruit. 

Would  four  feet  of  good  loose  soil  be  enough  for  lemons? 

Four  feet  of  good  soil,  providing  the  underlying  strata  are  not 
charged  with  alkali,  would  give  you  a  good  growth  of  lemon  trees  if 
moisture  was  regularly  present  in  about  the  right  quantity,  neither  too 
much  nor  too  little,  and  the  temperature  conditions  were  favorable  to  the 
success  of  this  tree,  which  will  not  stand  as  much  frost  as  the  orange. 

Temperatures  for  Citrus  Fruits. 

What  is  the  lozvcst  temperature  at  which  grapefruit  and  lemons  ivill 
succeed? 

The  grapefruit  tree  is  about  as  hardy  as  the  orange;  the  lemon  is 
much  more  tender.  The  fruit  of  citrus  trees  will  be  injured  by  tem- 
perature at  the  ordinary  freezing  point  if  continued  for  some  little  time, 
and  the  tree  itself  is  likely  to  be  injured  by  a  temperature  of  25  or  27" 
if  continued  for  a  few  hours.  The  matter  of  duration  of  a  low  tempera- 
ture is  perhaps  quite  as  important  as  the  degree  which  is  actually  reached 
by  the  thermometer.  The  condition  of  the  tree  as  to  being  dormant  or 
active  also  affects  injury  by  freezing  temperatures.  Under  certain  con- 
ditions an  orange  tree  may  survive  a  temperature  of  15°  Fahrenheit. 

Roots  for  Fruit  Trees. 

7  zvish  to  bud  from  certain  trees  that  nurseries  probably  do  not  carry, 
as  they  came  from  a  seedling.  Is  there  more  than  one  variety  of  niyrob- 
alan  used,  and  if  so,  is  one  as  good  as  another?  If  I  take  sprouts  that 
come  up  zvhere  the  roots  have  been  cut,  will  they  make  good  trees?  I 
have  tried  a  few,  nozu  three  years  old,  and  the  trees  are  doing  nicely  so 
far,  but  the  roots  sprout  up  zvhere  cut.  I  am  informed  that  if_  I  can 
raise  them  from  slips  they  will  not  sprout  up  from  the  root.  Will  apri- 
cots and  peaches  grafted  or  budded  on  myrobalan  produce  fruit  as  large 
as  they  will  if  grafted  on  their  own  stock? 

Experience  seems  to  be  clear  that  from  sprouts  you  will  get  sprouts. 
We  prefer  rooted  cuttings  to  sprouts,  but  even  these  are  abandoned  for 
seedling  roots  of  the  common  deciduous  fruits  and  of  citrus  fruits  also. 
The  apricot  does  well  enough  on  the  myrobalan  if  the  soil  needs  that 
root;  they  are  usually  larger  on  the  peach  root  or  on  apricot  seedlings. 
The  peach  is  no  longer  worked  on  the  myrobalan  in  this  State.  One 
seedling  of  the   cherry  plum  is  about  as  good  a   myrobalan  as   another. 


6  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

What  Will  the  Sucker  Be? 

/  have  a  Japanese  plum  tree  which  bears  choice  plums.  Three  years 
ago  a  strong  young  shoot  came  up  from  the  root  of  it,  which  I  dug  out 
and  planted.  Will  it  make  a  bearing  tree  in  time  and  be  of  like  quality 
with  the  parent? 

It  will  certainly  bear  something  when  it  gets  ready.  Whether  it  will 
be  like  the  parent  tree  depends  upon  the  wood  from  which  the  sucker 
broke  out.  If  the  young  tree  was  budded  very  low,  or  if  it  was  planted 
low,  or  if  the  ground  has  been  shifted  so  as  to  bring  the  wood  above 
the  bud  in  a  place  to  root  a  sucker,  the  fruit  will  be  that  of  the  parent 
tree.  If  the  shoot  came  from  the  root  below  the  bud,  you  will  get  a 
duplication  of  whatever  stock  the  plum  was  budded  on  in  the  nursery. 
It  might  be  a  peach  or  an  alm.ond  or  a  cherry  plum.  Of  course  you  can 
study  the  foliage  and  wood  growth  of  the  sucker,  and  thus  get  an  idea 
of  what  you  may  expect. 

Tree  Planting  on  Coast  Sands. 

/  wish  to  plant  fruit  trees  on  a  sandy  mesa  well  protected  from  ivinds 
about  a  mile  front  the  coast.  The  soil  is  a  light  sandy  loam.  I  intend  to 
dig  the  holes  for  the  trees  this  fall,  each  hole  the  shape  of  an  inverted 
cone,  about  4  feet  deep  and  5  feet  across,  and  put  a  half-load  of  rotten 
stable  manure  in  each  hole  this  fall.  The  imntcr's  rains  would  zvasli  a 
large  amount  of  plant  food  from  this  manure  into  the  ground.  In  March 
I  propose  to  plant  the  trees,  shoveling  the  surrounding  soil  on  top  of 
the  manure  and  giving  a  copious  watering  to  ensure  the  compact  settling 
of  the  soil  about  and  below  the  roots.  The  roots  would  be  about  a  foot 
above  the  manure. 

On  such  a  light  sandy  soil  you  can  use  stable  manure  more  safely 
than  you  could  elsewhere,  providing  you  have  water  handy  to  use  if  you 
should  happen  to  get  too  much  coarse  matter  under  the  tree,  which  would 
cause  drying  out  of  the  soil.  If  you  do  get  plenty  of  water  to  guard 
against  this  danger,  you  are  likely  to  use  too  much  and  cause  the  trees 
to  grow  too  fast.  Be  very  sure  the  manure  is  well  rotted  and  use  one 
load  to  ten  holes  instead  of  two.  Whether  you  kill  the  trees  or  cause 
them  to  grow  aright  depends  upon  how  you  use  water  after  planting. 

A  Wrong  Idea  of  Inter-Planting. 

What  forage  plant  can  I  grow  in  a  newly  planted  orchard?  The  soil 
is  on  a  gently  inclined  hillside — red,  decomposed  rock,  very  deep,  mellow, 
fluffy,  and  light,  and  deep  down  is  clayish  in  character.  It  cannot  be  ir- 
rigated, therefore  I  zvish  to  put  out  a  drought-resisting  plant  which  could 
be  harvested,  say,  in  June  or  July,  or  even  later.  I  find  the  follonnng 
plants,  but  I  cannot  decide  zvhich  one  is  the  best:  Yelloxv  soja  bean,  speltz, 
Egyptian  corn,  Jerusalem  corn,  yellow  Milo  maize,  or  one  of  the  millets. 
What  do  you  think? 

Do  not  think  for  a  moment  about  planting  any  such  plant  between 
orchard  trees  which  are  to  subsist  on  rainfall  without  irrigation.     Your 


Fruit  Growing  7 

trees  will  have  difficulty  enough  in  making  satisfactory  growth  on  rain- 
fall, and  would  be  prevented  from  doing  so  if  they  had  to  divide  the 
soil  moisture  with  crops  planted  between  them.  The  light,  deep  soils 
which  you  mention,  resulting  from  decomposed  rock,  are  not  retentive 
enough,  and,  even  with  the  large  rainfall  of  your  region,  may  require 
irrigation  to  carry  trees  through  the  latter  summer  and  early  fall  growth. 

What  Slopes  for  Fruit? 

I  want  to  plant  some  apples  and  berries.  One  man  says  plant 
them  on  the  east  or  south  slope  of  the  hill  and  they  zvill  be  ripe 
early.  Another  man  says  not  to  do  that,  for  when  the  sitn  hits  the 
trees  or  vines  in  the  morning  before  the  frost  is  off,  it  zvill  kill  all  the 
blossoms,  and  as  they  would  be  on  the  zvarni  side  of  the  hill  they  would 
blossom  earlier  and  there  zvill  be  more  frosts  to  injure  them.  I  am  told 
to  plant  them  on  the  north  or  zvest  side  of  the  hill,  where  it  is  cold,  and 
they  zvill  blossom  later  and  zvill  therefore  have  less  frosts  to  bother  them, 
and  the  frost  zvill  be  almost  off  before  the  sun  hits  them  in  the  morning. 

Fruit  is  grown  on  all  slopes  in  our  foothills,  depending  on  local 
conditions.  On  the  whole,  we  should  choose  the  east  and  north 
slopes  rather  than  the  east  and  south,  because  there  is  less  danger 
of  injury  from  too  great  heat.  In  some  cases  what  is  said  to  you 
about  the  less  danger  of  injury  from  frosts  on  the  north  and  west 
slopes  would  be  true.  All  these  things  depend  upon  local  conditions, 
because  there  is  so  much  difference  in  heat  and  frost  and  similar 
slopes  at  different  elevations  and  exposures.  There  can  never  be  a 
general  rule  for  it  in  a  State  so  endowed  with  varying  conditions 
as  California  is. 

Trees  Over  Underflow. 

/  have  planted  fruit  trees  near  the  creek,  where  they  do  not  have 
to  be  irrigated  as  the  ground  there  holds  sufficient  moisture  for  them, 
but  a  neighbor  tells  me  that  on  account  of  the  moisture  being  so  near 
the  surface  the  trees  will  not  bear  fruit  zvell,  although  they  zvill  grow 
and  have  all  the  appearances  of  health. 

Shallow  soil  above  standing  water  is  not  good  for  fruit  trees.  A 
shallow  soil  over  moving  water  or  underflow,  such  as  you  might  ex- 
pect from  a  creek  bank,  is  better.  The  effect  of  water  near  the  surface 
depends  also  upon  the  character  of  the  soil,  being  far  more  dangerous 
in  the  case  of  a  heavy  clay  soil  than  in  the  case  of  a  light  loam,  through 
which  water  moves  more  readily  and  does  not  rise  sp  far  or  so  rapidly 
by  capillary  action.  If  the  trees  are  thrifty  they  will  bear  when  they 
attain  a  sufficient  age  and  stop  the  riotous  growth  which  is  character- 
istic of  young  trees  with  abundant  moisture.  If  trees  have  too  much 
water  for  their  health,  it  will  be  manifested  by  the  rotting  of  their 
roots,  the  dying  of  their  branches,  the  cropping  out  of  mushroom  fungi 
at  the  base  and  other  manifestations  of  distress.  So  long  as  the  tree 
is  growing  well,  maintains  good  foliage  to  the  tip  of  the  branches  and 
is  otherwise  apparently  strong,  it  may  be  expected  to  bear  fruit  in  due 
time. 


8  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

The  "June  Drop." 

/  am  sending  four  peaches  which  are  falling  off  the  trees.  Can 
you  tell  me  how  to  prevent  falling  of  the  fruit  next  year  and  what 
causes  it? 

It  is  impossible  to  tell  from  the  peaches  which  you  send  what 
caused  their  falling.  Where  fruit  passes  the  pollination  stage  success- 
fully, as  these  fruits  have,  the  dropping  is  generally  attributed  to  some 
conditions  affecting  the  growth  of  the  tree,  which  never  have  been  fully 
determined.  It  is  of  such  frequent  occurrence  that  it  is  called  the 
June  drop,  and  it  usually  takes  place  in  May  in  California.  As  the 
cause  is  not  understood  no  rational  preventive  has  been  reached.  A 
general  treatment  which  consists  in  keeping  the  trees  in  good  grow- 
ing condition  late  enough  during  the  previous  season,  that  is,  by 
seeing  to  it  that  they  do  not  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture  which  causes 
them  to  close  their  growing  season  too  soon  before  preparation  for 
the  following  year's  crop  is  made,  is  probably  the  best  way  to 
strengthen  the  tree  for  its  burden. 

Trees  Over  a  Gravel  Streak. 

/  have  an  apricot  orchard  seven  years  old.  Most  of  the  land  is 
a  fairly  heavy  clay  with  a  strip  of  gravel  in  the  middle  running  nearly  north 
and  south.  The  trees  on  the  clay  bear  good  crops,  but  those  on  the 
gravel  are  usually  much  lighter  in  bearing  and  this  year  had  a  very 
light  crop.  Can  you  tell  me  of  anything  I  can  do  to  make  them  bear? 
The  trees  are  large  and  healthy  looking,  and  grow  big  crops  of  brush. 

We  should  try  some  water  in  July  on  the  gravel  streak,  hoping 
to  continue  activity  in  the  tree  later  to  induce  formation  of  strong 
fruit  for  the  following  year.  On  the  clay  loam  the  soil  does  this 
by  its  superior  retentiveness. 

Fruit  and  Overflow. 

/  have  i6  acres  of  rich  bottom-land  that  overflows  and  is  under 
water  from  24  to  48  hours.  I  zuould  like  to  set  the  ground  to  fruit 
trees,  either  prunes,  pears,  apricots,  or  peaches.  Would  it  be  safe  to 
set  them  on  such  land? 

Fruit  trees  will  endure  overflowing,  providing  the  water  does 
not  exclude  the  air  too  long  and  providing  the  soil  is  free  enough 
so  that  the  soil  does  not  remain  full  of  water  after  the  surface  flow 
disappears.  If  the  soil  does  not  naturally  drain  itself  and  the  water 
is  forced  to  escape  by  surface  evaporation,  probably  the  situation 
is  not  satisfactory  for  any  kind  of  fruit  trees.  Overflow  is  more 
likely  to  be  dangerous  to  fruit  trees  during  the  growing  season  than 
during  the  dormant  season,  and  yet  on  well-drained  soil  even  a  small 
overflow  may  not  be  injurious  on  a  free  soil,  if  not  continued  too 
long.  Prunes  on  plum  root,  and  pears  will  endure  wet  soil  better 
than  apricots  or  peaches. 


Fruit  Growing  9 

Fruit  Trees  and  Sunburn. 

How  long  is  it  zifise  to  leave  protection  around  young  fruit  trees 
set  out  in  March  in  this  hot  valley:^  The  trees  arc  doing  well,  but  we 
could  not  tell  zi'lien  to  take  away  protection. 

It  is  necessary  to  maintain  the  protection  from  sunburn  all 
through  the  autumn,  for  the  autumn  sun  is  often  very  hot,  and  as 
the  sap  flow  lessens,  the  danger  of  burning  is  apparently  greater. 
The  bark  also  must  be  protected  against  the  spring  sunshine,  even 
before  the  leaves  appear.  So  long  as  the  sun  has  a  chance  at  the 
bark,  you  must  protect  it  from  sunburn. 

Replanting  in  Orchard, 

Is  it  considered  a  good  plan  to  set  the  tree  at  once  in  the  place 
where  one  has  died,  or  is  it  better  to  wait  a  year  before  replacing? 

It  is  not  necessary  to  wait  a  year  in  making  a  replanting.  Get 
out  all  the  old  roots  you  can  by  digging  a  large  hole,  fill  in  with 
fresh  soil,  and  your  tree  will  accept  the  situation. 

Whole  Roots  or  Piece  Roots. 

For  commercial  apple  orchards  which  is  preferable,  trees  grafted  on 
piece  roots  or  on  zvhole  roots?  On  behalf  of  the  piece-root  trees  it 
is  claimed  they  sprout  up  less  around  the  tree.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  claimed  they  never  make  a  vigorous  tree.     What  is  the  truth? 

Value  depends  rather  upon  what  sort  of  a  growth  the  tree  makes 
afterward  than  upon  what  it  starts  upon.  Theoretically  perhaps  a 
whole-root  tree  may  be  demonstrated  to  be  better;  practically,  we 
cannot  see  that  it  becomes  so  necessarily,  because  we  have  trees 
planted  at  a  time  when  the  root  graft  on  a  piece  was  the  general  rule 
in  propagation.  After  all,  is  it  not  more  important  to  have  soil 
conditions  and  culture  of  such  character  that  a  great  root  can  grow 
in  the  orchard  than  to  have  a  whole  nursery  concentrated  in  the  root 
of  the  yearling  tree?  As  for  the  claim  that  a  root  graft  on  a  piece- 
root  never  makes  a  vigorous   tree,  we   know  that  is   nonsense. 

Planting  Deciduous  Fruit  Trees. 

In  order  to  gain  time,  I  have  thought  of  planting  apples  and  pears 
this  fall,  in  the  belief  I  zvould  be  just  that  much  nearer  a  crop,  than 
though  I  zvaited  until  next  spring.  The  land  is  sandy  loam;  no  irriga- 
tion. Would  you  advise  fall  or  spring  planting?  If  fall,  zvould  it  be 
best  to  plozv  the  land  nozv,  turning  in  the  stubble  from  hay  crop,  or 
wait  until  time  to  plant  before  plozmng? 

You  will  not  be  any  nearer  a  crop,  for  next  summer's  growth  will 
be  the  first  in  either  case.  On  land  not  liable  to  be  too  wet  in 
winter,  it  is,  however,  best  to  plant  early,  say  during  the  month  of 
December,  if  the  ground  is  in  good  condition  and  sufficiently  moist. 


10  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

If  the  year's  rainfall  has  been  scant,  wait  until  the  land  is  well  wet 
down,  for  it  is  never  desirable  to  plant  when  the  soil  is  not  in  the 
right  condition,  no  matter  what  the  calendar  may  say.  On  a  sandy 
loam  early  planting  is  nearly  always  safe  and  desirable.  On  lands 
which  are  too  wet  and  liable  to  be  rendered  very  cold  by  the  heavy 
January  rains,  planting  had  better  be  deferred  until  February,  or  as 
soon  as  the  ground  gets  in  good  condition  after  these  heavy  rains. 
Whenever  you  plant,  it  will  be  desirable  to  plow  the  land  either  in 
advance  of  the  rains,  if  it  is  workable,  or  as  soon  as  rain  enough 
comes  to  make  it  break  up  well.  It  is  very  seldom  desirable  to  post- 
pone plowing  until  the  actual  time  of  planting  comes. 

Budding  Fruit  Trees. 

Is  it  better  to  bud  in  old  bark  of  an  old  tree  or  in  younger  wood  bark?' 
How  do  you  separate  old  bark  without  breaking  it  in  lifting  the  bark? 

Buds  may  be  placed  in  old  bark  of  fruit  trees  to  a  certain  extent. 
The  orange  and  the  olive  work  better  that  way  than  do  the  deciduous 
trees,  although  buds  in  old  bark  of  the  peach  have  done  well.  They 
should,  however,  be  inserted  early  in  the  season  while  the  sap  flow 
is  active  and  the  old  bark  capable  of  lifting;  if  the  bark  sticks,  do 
not  try  budding.  In  spite  of  these  facts,  nearly  all  budding  of  de- 
ciduous trees  is  done  in  bark  of  the  current  year's  growth. 

Starting  Fruit  Trees  from  Seed. 

Hoiv  shall  I  start,  and  when,  the  following  seeds:  Peach,  plums, 
apricots,  walnuts,  olives  and  cherries?  In  the  East  rve  used  to  plant 
them  in  the  fall,  so  as  to  have  them  freeze;  as  it  does  not  freeze  enough 
here,  what  do  I  have  to  do? 

Do  just  the  same.  In  California,  heat  and  moisture  cause  the 
parting  of  the  seed-cover,  more  slowly  perhaps,  but  just  as  surely 
as  the  frost  at  the  East.  Early  planting  of  all  fruit  pits  and  nuts 
is  desirable  for  two  reasons.  First,  it  prevents  too  great  drying  and 
hardening  and  other  changes  in  the  seed,  because  the  soil  moisture 
prevents  it;  second,  it  gives  plenty  of  time  for  the  opening  and  ger- 
mination first  mentioned.  But  early  planting  must  be  in  ground 
which  is  loamy  and  light  rather  than  heavy,  because  if  the  soil  is  so 
heavy  as  to  become  water-logged  the  kernel  is  more  apt  to  decay 
than  to  grow.  Where  there  is  danger  of  this,  the  seed  can  be  kept 
in  boxes  of  sand,  continually  moist,  but  not  wet,  by  use  of  water,  and 
planted  out,  as  sprouting  seeds,  after  the  coldest  rains  are  over,  say 
in  February.  Cherry  and  plum  seeds  she  ild  be  kept  moist  after 
taking  from  the  fruit;  very  little  is  usually  had  from  dry  seeds.  The 
other  fruits  will  stand  considerable  drying.  Very  few  olives  are  from 
the  seed,  because  of  reversion  to  wild  types — also  because  it  is  so 
much  easier  to  get  just  the  variety  you  want  by  growing  trees  from 
cuttings. 


Fruit  Growing  11 

Mailing  Scions. 

Which  is  the  best  n^ay  to  scud  scions  by  mail? 

Wax  the  ends  of  mature  cuttings,  remove  the  leaves  and  en- 
close in  a  tight  tin  canister  with  no  wet  packing  material. 

Nursery  Stock  in  Young  Orchard. 

Hozv  ivill  it  do  to  raise,  for  tzco  or  three  years,  a  lot  of  orange 
seedlings  betxvcen  the  rozvs  of  young  three-year-old  orange  trees?  I 
see  that  a  nurseryman  near  me  has  done  this,  and  his  trees  are  more 
flourishing  than   mine. 

It  can  be  done  all  right,  as  your  own  observation  affirms.  The 
superior  appearance  of  the  trees  may  be  due  to  the  additional  water, 
and  fertilizer  probably,  used  to  push  the  seedlings;  possibly  also  to 
extra  cultivation  given  them.  It  all  depends  upon  what  policy  is 
observed  in  growing  the  seedlings;  if  something  more  than  usual  is 
done  for  their  sakes,  the  trees  may  get  their  share  and  manifest  it. 
If  not,  the  trees  will  be  robbed  by  the  seedlings,  and  there  is  likely  to 
be  loss  by  both.  There  is  no  advantage  in  the  mere  fact  that  both 
are  grown;  there  may  be  in  the  way  they  are  grown.  Whether  there 
is  money  value  in  the  operation  or  not  depends  upon  how  many  un- 
dertake it. 

Square  or  Triangular  Planting. 

What  is  your  opinion  on  triangular  planting  as  compared  with  square 
planting? 

Planting  in  squares  is  the  prevailing  method.  The  triangular 
plan  is  not  a  good  one  when  one  contemplates  removing  trees  planted 
as  fillers.  The  orchard  should  either  be  planned  in  the  square  or 
quincunx  form.  In  the  latter  case  individual  trees  can  be  easily  re- 
moved; in  the  other  case  rows  can  be  removed — leaving  the  rows 
which  you  wish  to  keep  equidistant   from   each   other. 

Killing  Stumps  by  Medication. 

Will  boring  into  green  stumps  and  inserting  a  handful  of  saltpeter 
kill  the  roots  and  cause  the  stump  to  readily  burn  up  a  few  inonths 
later? 

We  have  tried  all  kinds  of  prescriptions  and  have  never  killed  a 
stump  which  had  a  mind  to  live.  Many  trees  can  be  killed  by  cutting 
to  stumps  when  in  full  growth,  whether  they  are  bored  or  not.  Others 
will  sprout  in  spite  of  all  medicinal  insertions  we  know  of  when  these 
are  placed  in  the  inner  wood  of  the  stump.  We  believe  a  stump  can 
be  killed  by  sufficient  contact  with  the  inner  bark  layer  of  arsenic, 
bluestone,  gasoline,  and  many  other  things,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  ar- 
range for  such  sufficient  contact,  and  it  would  probably  cost  more 
than  it  would  to  blow  or  pull  out  the  stump.  One  reader,  however, 
assures  us  that  he  has  killed  large  eucalyptus  stumps  by  boring  three 
holes   in   the   stump   with   an   inch   auger,   near   the   outer   rim   of   the 


e 

ce. 

e 

e 


12  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

stump,  placing  therein  a  tablespoonful  of  potassium  cyanide  and 
saltpeter  mixture  (half  and  half),  and  plugging  tightly.  Another  says: 
Give  the  stumps  a  liberal  application  of  salt,  say  a  half-inch  all  over 
the  top,  and  let  the  fog  and  rain  dissolve  and  soak  down,  and  you  will 
not    have    much    trouble    with    suckers. 

Planting  Fruit  Trees  on  Clearings. 

We  zvish  to  plant  orchard  trees  on  land  cleared  this  winter:  mansa- 
nita  and  chaparral,  but  also  some  oaks  and  large  pines  and  groves  of 
small  pines.  We  have  been  told  that  trees  planted  under  such  conditions, 
the  ground  containing  the  many  small  roots  that  we  cannot  get  out, 
would  not  do  well.  Are  the  had  effects  of  the  small  roots  liable  to  be 
serious;  also,  would  lime  or  any  other  common  fertilizer  counteract 
the  bad  effects? 

Proceed  with  the  planting,  as  you  are  ready  for  it,  and  take  the 
chances  of  root  injury.  It  may  be  slight;  possibly  even  absent.  Care- 
full}'  throw  out  all  root  pieces,  as  you  dig  the  hole,  and  exclude  them 
from  the  earth  which  you  use  in  filling  around  the  roots,  and  in  th 
places  where  large  trees  stood,  fill  the  holes  with  soil  from  a  distanc< 
Much  depends  upon  how  clean  the  clearing  was.  No  considerabl 
antiseptic  effect  could  be  expected  from  lime  and  the  soil  ought  to  b- 
strong  enough  to  grow  good  young  trees  without  enrichment.  The 
pear,  fig  and  California  black  walnut  are  some  of  the  most  resistant 
among  fruit-bearing  trees,  and  these  may  usually  be  planted  with 
safety.  The  cherry  is  the  most  resistant  of  the  stone  fruits.  The 
"toadstool"  disease  occasionally  afifects  young  apple  trees  recently  set 
out,  but  it  is  not  usually  serious  on  established  trees. 

Dipping  Roots  of  Fruit  Trees. 

In  planting  an  almond  orchard  tvould  it  be  of  any  benefit  to  dip  the 
young  trees  in  a  solution  of  bluestone  and  lime  dissolved? 

We  doubt  if  it  would  serve  any  good  purpose.  If  done  at  all 
the  dip  should  be  carefully  prepared  in  accordance  with  the  formula 
for  bordeaux  mixture,  for  excess  of  bluestone  will  kill  roots.  Healthy 
trees  do  not  need  such  treatment,  and  we  doubt  if  unhealthy  ones  can 
be  rendered  safe  or  desirable  by  it. 

Preparing  for  Fruit  Planting. 

What  effect  will  a  crop  of  zvheat  have  on  neiv  cleared  land,  to  be 
planted  in  fruit  trees  later  on? 

One  crop  of  wheat  or  barley  will  make  no  particular  difiference 
with  the  cleared  land  which  you  expect  to  plant  to  fruit  later.  It 
would  be  better  to  grow  a  cultivated  crop  like  corn,  potatoes,  beets, 
squashes,  etc.,  because  this  crop  would  require  summer  cultivation 
which  would  kill  out  many  weeds  or  sprouts  and  leave  your  land  in 
better  shape  for  planting. 


Fruit  Growing  13 

Depth  in  Planting  Fruit  Trees. 

/  haz'c  been  advised  to  plant  the  bud  scar  above  ground  in  a  zoet 
country.     Is  that  right F 

On  ordinary  good  loam,  plant  the  tree  so  that  it  will  stand  about 
the  same  as  it  did  in  the  nursery:  a  little  lower,  perhaps,  but  not  much. 
The  bud  scar  should  be  a  little  above  the  surface.  It  is  somewhat 
less  likely  to  give  trouble  by  decay  in  the  upset  tissue.  If  the  soil  is 
heavy  and  wet,  plant  higher,  perhaps,  than  the  nursery  soil-mark,  but 
not  much.  In  light,  sandy  soil,  plant  lower — even  from  four  to  six 
inches  lower — than  in  the  nursery  sometimes.  In  this  case  the  bud- 
scar  is  below  the  surface,  but  that  does  not  matter  in  a  light,  dry 
soil  which  does  not  retain  moisture  near  the  surface. 

Fruit  Trees  in  a  Wet  Place. 

One  part  of  my  orchard  is  low  and  wet,  much  scale  and  old  trees 
loose.  Will  much  spraying  be  a  cure  and  can  I  use  posts  to  hold  the 
old  trees  firm,  or  would  you  take  out  and  put  in  Bartlctt  pears? 

Spraying  would  kill  the  scale  but  no  spraying  will  make  a  tree 
satisfactory  in  inhospitable  soil.  As  pears  will  endure  wet  places 
better  than  apples,  it  would  seem  to  be  wise  to  make  the  substitution, 
providing  the  situation  is  not  too  bad  for  any  fruit  tree.  In  that  case 
you  can  use  it  for  a  summer  vegetable  patch. 

Cutting  Back  at  Planting. 

/  have  planted  a  lot  of  one-year-old  cherry  trees  and  zvould  like  to 
know  if  I  should  cut  them  down  the  same  as  the  apple  tree?  I  have 
also  planted  a  lot  of  walnut  trees.     Shall  I  cut  them  off? 

Yes  for  the  cherries  and  no  for  the  walnuts — although  we  have  to 
admit  that  some  planters  hold  for  cutting  back  the  walnuts  also.  If 
you  do  cut  back  the  walnuts,  let  them  have  about  twice  the  height  of 
stem  you  give  the  cherries  and  cover  the  exposed  pith  with  wax  or 
paint. 

Branching  Young  Fruit  Trees. 

It  is  the  practice  in  this  locality  to  wrap  all  young  trees  to  a  point 
24  inches  above  the  bud,  for  the  purpose  of  protection  against  rabbits, 
to  protect  the  bark  from  the  sun  and  to  prevent  growth  of  sprouts.  These 
wrappings  are  kept  on  in  definitely,  the  rule  being  that  no  sprouting  is  to 
be  permitted  below  the  34-inch  mark.  Is  there  any  virtue  in  this,  and 
why  is  it  done? 

The  wrapping  is  desirable  both  to  protect  them  from  rabbits  and 
from  sunburn,  and  either  this  or  whitewash  or  some  other  form  of 
protection  should  certainly  be  employed  against  the  latter  trouble.  It 
is  not  desirable  to  have  all  the  branches  emerge  at  the  same  point, 
either  24  from  the  ground  or  at  some  lower  level,  as  is  preferable  in 
interior  situations,  but  branches  should   be  distributed  up  and  down 


14  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

and  around  the  trunk  so  as  to  give  a  strong,  well-balanced,  low-headed 
tree.  So  far  as  wrapping  interferes  with  the  growth  of  shoots  in  this 
manner  it  is  undesirable. 

Coal  Tar  and  Asphaltum  on  Trees. 

What  is  the  effect  of  coal  tar  or  asphaltum  applied  to  the  hark  of 
trees? 

The  application  of  coal  tar  to  prevent  the  root  borers  of  the  prune 
which  operate  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  was  found  to  be 
not  injurious  to  the  trees,  although  there  was  great  apprehension  that 
there  would  be.  The  application  of  asphaltum,  what  is  known  as 
"grade  D,"  has  been  also  used  to  some  extent  in  the  Santa  Clara  valley 
without  injury.  Of  course,  in  the  use  of  any  black  material,  you  in- 
crease the  danger  of  sunburn,  if  applied  to  bark  which  is  reached  by 
the  sun's  rays. 

Whitewashing  Fruit  Trees. 

When  is  the  proper  time  to  whitewash  walnut  trees  to  prevent  sun- 
scald  F    How  high  up  is  it  advisable  to  apply  the  wash? 

Whitewash  after  heavy  rains  are  over  and  before  the  sun  gets 
very  hot;  near  the  coast  see  that  it  is  on  early  in  April;  in  the  interior 
it  should  be  in  place  in  March.  Do  not  wait  until  all  the  rains  are 
over,  because  there  is  a  great  chance  of  bark-burning  between  rains 
in  the  spring.  Whitewash  the  trunk  and  the  larger  limbs — wherever 
the  sun  can  reach  the  bark;  being  careful  to  keep  the  surface  white 
where  the  2  o'clock  sun  hits  it.  Be  particular  to  whitewash,  or  other- 
wise protect  by  "protectors"  or  burlap  wrappings,  all  young  trees; 
the  young  tree  is  more  apt  to  be  hurt  than  an  old  one,  but  bark  seems 
never  to  get  too  old  to  burn  if  the  sun  is  hot  enough. 

Shaping  a  Young  Tree. 

In  shortening  back  long,  slim  limbs  the  side  shoots  come  out,  and 
one  soon  has  a  lot  of  ugly,  crooked  limbs  to  look  at.  There  are  a  number 
of  orchards  here  being  spoiled  in  that  way.     How  is  this  avoided? 

You  cannot  secure  a  low-heading,  well-shaped  tree  without  cut- 
ting back  the  branches.  Afterward  you  can  improve  the  form  by 
selecting  shoots  which  are  going  in  directions  which  you  prefer,  or 
you  can  cut  back  the  shoots  afterward  to  a  bud  which  will  start  in  the 
direction  which  you  desire.  In  this  way  the  progressive  shaping  of 
the  tree  niust  be  pursued.  If  you  only  have  a  few  trees  and  can  af- 
ford the  time,  you  can,  of  course,  bend  and  tie  the  branches  as  they 
grow,  so  that  they  will  take  directions  which  seem  to  you  better,  but 
this  is  not  practicable  in  orcharding  on  a  commercial  scale.  There  is 
no  disadvantage  in  crooked  branches  in  a  fruit  tree,  but  they  should 
crook  in  desirable  directions,  and  that  is  where  the  art  in  pruning 
comes   in. 


Fruit  Growing  15 

Pruning  Times. 

What  is  the  best  time  to  prune  the  French  prune  and  most  other 
trees?  In  Santa  Clara  valley  they  prune  as  soon  as  leaves  are  off;  in 
the  mountains  they  prune  later,  say  in  February  and  March,  and  finish 
after  bloom  is  started  and  of  course  when  sap  is  up.     IVhich  is  right? 

You  can  prune  French  prunes  and  other  deciduous  trees  at  any- 
time during  the  winter  that  is  most  convenient  to  you.  It  does 
not  make  any  particular  difference  to  the  tree,  nor  does  it  injure  the 
tree  at  all  if  you  should  continue  pruning  after  the  bloom  has  started. 
In  fact,  it  is  better  to  make  large  cuts  late  in  the  winter,  because  they 
heal  over  more  readily  at  the  beginning  of  the  growing  period  than 
at  the  beginning  of  the  resting  season.  It  is  believed  that  early  prun- 
ing may  cause  the  tree  or  vine  to  start  growth  somewhat  sooner  and 
this  may  be  undesirable  in  very  frosty  places. 

Grafting  Wax. 

Hozv  shall  I  make  grafting  wax  for  grafting  fruit  trees? 

There  are  many  "favorite  prescriptions"  for  grafting  wax.  One 
which  is  now  being  largely  used  in  fruit  tree  grafting  is  as  follows: 
Resin,  5  lbs.;  beeswax,  1  lb.;  linseed  oil,  1  pint;  flour,  1  pint.  The 
flour  is  added  slowly  and  stirred  in  after  the  other  ingredients  have 
been  boiled  together  and  the  liquid  becomes  somewhat  cooler.  Some 
substitute  lampblack  for  flour.  This  wax  is  warmed  and  applied  as 
a    liquid. 

Plowing  in  Young  Orchard. 

How  near  can  I  plozv  to   tzuo-year-old  orajige  trees  safely? 

You  can  plow  young  orange  orchards  as  close  to  the  trees  as  you 
can  approach  without  injuring  the  bark,  regulating  depth  so  as  not  to 
destroy  main  roots.  Destruction  of  root  fibers  which  have  approached 
too  near  the  surface  is  not  material.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  soil 
around  and  near  the  tree  be  as  carefully  worked  as  possible  without 
injury  to  the  bark  of  the  tree.  How  far  that  can  be  done  by  horse 
work  and  how  much  must  be  done  by  hand  must  be  decided  by  the 
individual  judgment   of   the   grower. 

Crops  Between  Fruit  Trees. 

What  would  be  best  to  grow  between  fruit  trees,  while  the  trees  are 
growing,  and  what  to  alternate  each  season,  so  as  not  to  use  up  the  soil 
without  putting  back  into  it? 

Where  one  is  bringing  along  a  young  orchard,  without  irrigation, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  not  better  policy  to  give  the  trees  all  the 
advantage  of  clean  cultivation  and  ample  moisture  than  to  undertake 
intercropping.  If  you  live  on  the  place  and  wish  to  grow  vegetables 
between  the  rows,  the  thorough  cultivation  to  bring  the  vegetables 
along  satisfactorily  would  help  to  preserve  moisture  enough  both  for 
the    vegetables    and    for    the    trees,    but    this    is    very    different    from 


16  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

growing  a  field  crop  by  ordinary  methods  of  cultivation.  Select  a 
crop  which  will  require  summer  cultivation,  like  corn,  potatoes, 
squashes,  and  beans,  and  never  a  hay  or  grain  crop  which  takes  up 
moisture  without  working  the  soil  for  the  greater  moisture  conversa- 
tion which  hoed  crops  require.  In  choice  of  hoed  crops  be  gov- 
erned by  what  you  can  use  to  advantage,  either  for  house  or  the 
feeding  of  animals,  or  what  you  can  grow  that  is  salable  with  least 
loss  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  The  choice  is  governed  entirely  by 
local  conditions,  except  that  leguminous  plants — peas,  beans,  vetches, 
clovers,  etc. — do  take  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere  and  can  thus 
be  grown  with  least  injury  and  sometimes  with  a  positive  benefit 
to   the   fertility  of  the   soil. 

Regular  Bearing  of  Fruit  Trees. 

How  can  trees  be  induced  to  bear  regularly  instead  of  bearing  exces- 
sively on  alternate  years? 

The  most  rational  view  is  that  in  order  to  bear  regularly  the 
tree  must  be  prevented  from  overbearing  by  thinning  of  the  fruit; 
also  that  the  moisture  and  plant-food  supply  must  be  regularly 
maintained,  so  that  the  tree  may  work  along  regularly  and  not  stop 
bearing  one  year  in  order  to  accumulate  vigor  for  a  following  year's 
crop.  There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  some  trees  which  seem 
to  overbear  every  year  can  be  prolonged  in  their  profitable  life  and 
made  to  produce  a  moderate  amount  of  fruit  of  large  size  and 
higher  value  by  sharp  thinning  to  prevent  overbearing  at  any  time. 
This  is  found  clearly  practicable  in  the  cases  of  the  apricot,  peach, 
pear,  apple,  table  grape,  shipping  plum,  etc.,  because  the  added 
value  of  larger  fruits  is  greater  than  the  cost  of  removing  the  sur- 
plus. 

Scions  from  Young  Trees. 

/  have  bought  some  one-year-old  apple  trees  that  are  certified  pedigree 
trees.  Would  it  be  practical  to  take  the  tops  of  these  trees  and  graft  on 
one-year  seedlings  and  get  the  same  results  as  from  the  trees  I  bought? 
Will  they  bear  just  as  good,  or  is  it  necessary  to  take  the  scions  from 
old  bearing  trees? 

They  will  bear  exactly  the  same  fruit  as  the  young  trees  will, 
but  you  cannot  tell  how  good  that  will  be  until  you  get  the  fruit. 
The  advantage  of  scions  from  bearing  trees  is  that  you  know  exactly 
what  you  will  get,  for,  presumably,  you  have  seen  and  approved  it. 

Late   Pruning. 

Will  I  do  injury  to  my  peach  trees  if  I  delay  pruning  until  the  last  of 
February,  or  until  the  sap  begins  to  run  and  the  buds  to  swell? 

It  will  not  do  any  particular  harm  to  let  your  peach  pruning 
go  until  the  buds  swell  or  even  after  the  leaves  appear.  Late  prun- 
ing is  not  injurious,  but  rather  more  inconvenient. 


Fruit  Growing  17 

Avoiding  Crotches  in  Fruit  Trees. 

IIow  can  I  ai'oid  bad  crotches  in  fruit  trees? 

Crotches,  which  means  branches  of  equal  or  nearly  equal  size, 
emerging  from  a  point  at  a  very  acute  angle,  should  be  prevented 
by  cutting  out  one  or  both  of  them.  The  branching  of  a  lateral  at 
a  larger  angle  does  not  form  a  crotch  and  it  usually  buttresses  it- 
self well  on  the  larger  branch.  That  is  a  desirable  form  of  branch- 
ing. Short  distances  between  such  branchings  is  desirable,  because 
it  makes  a  stronger  and  more  permanently  upright  limb,  capable  of 
sustaining  much  weight  of  foliage  and  fruit.  Build  up  the  young  tree 
by  shortening  in  as  it  grows,  so  as  to  get  such  a  strong  framework. 

Crotch-Splitting   of   Fruit   Trees. 

/  have  a  young  fig  tree  that  is  splitting  at  the  crotches.  I  fear  that 
when  the  foliage  appears,  with  the  force  of  the  winds  the  limbs  will  split 
doimi  entirely. 

Perhaps  you  have  been  forcing  the  trees  too  much  with  water 
and  thus  secured  too  much  foliage  and  weak  wood.  Whenever  a 
tree  is  doing  that,  the  limbs  ought  to  be  supported  with  bale  rope 
tied  to  opposite  limbs  through  the  head,  or  otherwise  held  up,  to 
prevent  splitting.  If  splitting  has  actually  occurred,  the  weaker  limb 
should  be  cut  away  and  the  other  staked  if  necessary  until  it  gets 
strength  and  stiffens.  If  the  limbs  are  rather  large  they  can  be 
drawn  up  and  a  Vis-inch  carriage  bolt  put  through  to  hold  both  in 
place;  but  this  is  a  poor  way  to  make  a  strong  tree.  We  should 
cut  out  all  splits  and  do  the  best  we  could  to  make  a  tree  out  of 
what  is   left.     Then   do   not  make   them   grow  so   fast. 

Strengthening  Fruit  Trees. 

/  have  read  that  some  trees  arc  propped  by  natural  braces;  that  is, 
by  inter-twining  tivo  opposite  branches  while  the  tree  is  youtig,  so  that  in 
time  they  grow  together.  What  is  your  idea  regarding  the  practicability 
of  such  an  idea  in  a  large  commercial  orchard? 

Twining  branches  for  the  purpose  indicated  is  frequently  com- 
mended, but  it  seems  best  for  the  use  of  ingenious  people  with 
plenty  of  time  and  not  many  trees.  To  prune  trees  to  carry  their 
fruit  so  far  as  one  can  foresee,  and  to  use  props  or  other  supports 
when  a  tree  manifests  need  of  a  particular  help  which  was  not 
foreseen  is  the  most  rational  way  to  handle  the  proposition  on  a 
large  commercial  scale. 

Time  for  Pruning. 

What  is  the  proper  time  for  pruning  pear  and  apricot  trees? 

Ordinary  deciduous  fruit  trees  can  be  successfully  pruned  from 
the  time  the  leaves  begin  to  turn  yellow  and  fall,  until  the  new 
foliage   is   appearing   in    the    late   winter   or   spring. 


18  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Grape   Planting. 

What  is  the  proper  time  for  planting  grape  vines? 

Grape  vines  arc  most  successfully  planted  after  the  heavy  rains 
and  low  temperatures  are  over  and  before  the  growth  starts.  This 
will  usually  be  whenever  the  soil  is  in  good  condition,  during  the 
months  of  February  and  March. 

Covering  Tree  Wounds. 

What  is  the  best  stuff  to  use  on  wounds  and  large  cuts  on  my  fruit 
trees?  I  have  used  grafting  wax,  hut  it  is  expensive  and  not  altogether 
satisfactory. 

Amputation  wounds  on  trees  can  be  more  successfully  treated 
with  lead  and  oil  paint  than  with  grafting  wax.  Mixed  paint  con- 
taining benzine  would  not  be  so  good  as  pure  lead  and  oil  mixed 
for  the  purpose  and  then  carefully  applied  as  to  amount  so  as  not 
to  run.     "Asphaltum  Grade  D"  may  also  be  used  in  the  same  way. 

Covering  Sunburned  Bark. 

Would  asphaltum  do  to  use  on  sunburned  bark? 

Owing  to  the  attraction  of  the  heat  by  the  black  color,  asphal- 
tum would  increase  the  injury  by  absorption  of  more  heat.  Some 
white  coating  is  altogether  best  for  sunburn  injuries,  because  it  will 
reflect  and  not  absorb  heat,  and  a  durable  whitewash  applied  as 
may  be  needed  to  keep  the  white  covering  intact  is  undoubtedly  the 
best  treatment.  Where  the  bark  has  been  actually  removed,  white 
paint  would  be  superior  to  whitewash  to  keep  the  wood  from  check- 
ing while  the  wound  was  being  covered  laterally  by  the  growth  of 
new    bark. 

Too  Much  Prvining. 

Some  peach  trees  entering  the  third  year  were  pruned  early  in  the 
winter  very  severely.  The  pruner  merely  left  the  trunk  and  the  three  or 
four  main  laterals,  the  latter  about  one  foot  in  length.  A  large  proportion 
of  these  trees  have  not  sprouted  as  yet,  though  older  and  better  pruned 
trees  are  all  sprouted  in  the  same  vicinity.  The  bark  is  green  and  has 
considerable  sap.     Will  the  trees  commence  to  grozv? 

The  trees  will  sprout  later,  after  they  have  developed  latent 
buds  into  active  form.  The  pruning  probably  removed  all  the  buds 
of  recent  growth.  After  starting  they  will  make  irregular  growth, 
starting  too  many  shoots  in  the  wrong  places,  etc.,  and  considerable 
efifort  will  be  necessary  to  get-  well-shaped  trees  by  selection  of 
shoots  in  the  right  places  and  thinning  out  those  which  are  not 
desirable. 

For  Broken  Roots. 

When  the  root  of  an  orange  or  other  fruit  tree  is  exposed  or  broken 
by  the  cultivator,  what  is  the  best  zvay  to  treat  that  root? 

Where  a  root  is  actually  broken  it  is  best  to  cut  it  off  cleanly 
above  the  break.     This  will  induce  quick  healing  over  and  the  send- 


Fruit  Growing  19 

ing  out  of  other  roots.  Where  there  is  only  a  bruise  on  one  side, 

all    the    frayed    edges    of  the    wound    should    be    cleanly   cut    back    to 

sound    bark,    which    will  have    a    tendency    to    promote    healing    and 
prevent  decay. 

Pruning   in   Frosty   Places. 

This  appears  to  be  a  frosty  section.  Pruners  are  at  ivork  continuously 
from  the  time  the  apricots  are  harvested  until  spring  arrives.  From  zvhat 
is  said  in  "California  Fruits"  I  judge  late  zvintcr  pruning  zvould  be  best  for 
apricots  and  peaches.    Am  I  correct? 

In  frosty  places  it  is  often  desirable  to  prune  rather  late,  be- 
cause the  late-pruned  tree  usually  starts  later  than  the  early  pruned, 
and  thus  may  not  bloom  until  after  frost  is  over. 

Low  Growth  on  Fruit  Trees. 

Should  the  little  tzvigs  on  the  lozvcr  parts  of  young  fruit  trees  be 
removed  or  shortened? 

An  important  function  which  these  small  shoots  and  the  foliage 
which  they  will  carry  perform  is  in  the  thickening  of  the  larger 
branches  to  which  they  are  attached  and  overcoming  the  tendency 
of  the  tree  to  become  too  tall  and  spindling.  This  can  be  done  at 
any  time,  even  to  the  pinching  of  young,  soft  shoots  as  they  appear. 
It  must  be  said,  however,  that  in  ordinary  commercial  fruit  growing 
little  attention  is  paid  to  these  fine  points,  which  are  the  great 
enjoyment  of  the  European  fruit-gardeners  and  are  of  questionable 
value  in  our  standard  orcharding.  It  is,  however,  a  great  mistake 
to  clear  away  all  low  twigs,  for  such  twigs  bring  the  first  fruit  on 
young  trees. 

Are  Tap-Roots   Essential? 

Is  it  better  to  plant  a  nut  or  seed  or  to  plant  a  grafted  root;  also  is 
it  better  to  allozv  the  tap-root  to  remain  or  not  in  event  of  planting  a 
grafted  root? 

It  does  not  matter  at  all  whether  the  tree  has  its  original  tap- 
root or  not.  All  tap-roots  are  more  or  less  destroyed  in  trans- 
planting and  the  fact  that  not  one  per  cent  of  the  walnut  trees  now 
bearing  crops  in  California  consist  of  trees  grown  from  the  nut 
itself  planted  in  place,  is  sufficient  demonstration  to  us  that  it  is 
perfectly  practicable  to  proceed  with  transplanting  the  trees.  It  is 
more  important  that  the  tree  should  have  the  right  sort  of  soil  and 
the  right  degree  of  moisture  to  grow  in  than  that  it  should  retain 
the  root  from  which  the  seedling  started.  The  removal  of  the  tap- 
root does  not  prevent  the  tree  from  sending  out  one  or  several 
deep  running  roots  which  will  penetrate  as  deeply  as  the  soil  and 
moisture  conditions  favor.  This  is  true  not  only  of  the  walnut  but 
of  other  fruit  trees. 


20  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Transplanting   Old   Trees. 

Can  I  transplant  fntit  trees  2  to  3  inches  through  the  butt,  about  one 
foot  from  the  ground?  Varieties  are  oranges,  lemons,  pears,  apples  and 
English  ivalnuts  nearly  4  inches  through  the  butt.  I  wish  to  move  them 
nearly  a  mile.  What  is  the  best  ivay  and  what  the  best  month  to  do 
the  work,  or  are  trees  too  large  to  do  well  if  movedf 

The  orange  and  lemon  will  do  better  in  transplanting  than  the 
others.  Take  up  the  trees  when  the  soil  becomes  warmed  by  the 
sun  after  the  coldest  weather  is  over.  This  may  be  in  February. 
Cut  back  the  branches  severely  and  take  up  the  trees  with  a  good 
ball  of  earth,  using  suitable  lifting  tackle  to  handle  it  without  break- 
ing. Settle  the  earth  around  the  ball  in  the  new  place  with  water, 
and  keep  the  soil  amply  moist  but  not  wet.  Whitewash  all  bark 
exposed  to  the  sun  by  cutting  back.  You  can  handle  the  walnut 
the  same  way,  but  it  would,  however,  probably  get  such  a  setback 
that  it  might  be  better  to  buy  a  new  tree  two  or  three  years  old 
and  plant  that.  The  apples  and  pears  we  would  not  try  to  trans- 
plant, but  would  rather  have  good  new  yearlings  than  try  to  coax 
them  along.  Transplanting  deciduous  trees  should  be  done  earlier 
in  the  winter  than  evergreens. 

Dwarfing  a  Frmt  Tree. 

/  am  told  that  by  pruning  the  roots  of  a  young  tree  after  the  root 
system  is  zvell  started  (say  three  years  old)  that  as  a  result  this  will  pro- 
duce a  tree  that  is  semi-dwarfed  or  practically  a  dzuarfed  fruit  tree. 

Yes;  cutting  back  the  roots  in  the  winter  and  cutting  back  the 
new  growth  in  the  summer  will  have  a  dwarfing  efifect.  The  best 
way  to  get  a  dwarfed  garden  tree  is  to  use  a  dwarfing  root.  You 
can  get  trees  on  such   roots  at  the  nurseries. 

Seedling  Fruits. 

I  have  been  growing  seedlings  from  the  pits  of  some  extra  fine  peaches 
and  plums  with  a  viciv  to  planting  them.  A  man  near  San  Jose  advised 
me  that  I  would  get  good  results,  but  since  then  I  have  met  others  who 
say  that  the  fruit  trees  that  spring  from  planted  seeds  yield  only  poor 
fruit. 

It  is  the  tendency  of  nearly  all  improved  fruit  to  revert  to  wild 
types,  more  or  less,  when  grown  from  the  seed.  The  chances  are, 
then,  that  nine-tenths  or  more  of  the  seedlings  which  you  grew  for 
fruiting  might  be  worthless.  A  few  might  be  as  good  as  the  fruit 
from  which  you  took  the  pits;  possibly  one  might  be  better.  For 
these  reasons  the  growing  of  fruit  trees  from  pits  and  seeds  is  only 
used  for  the  purpose  of  getting  a  root  from  which  a  chosen  variety 
may  be   gotten    by  budding  and   grafting. 

Grafting. 

/  did  a  little  grafting  last  spring,  and  as  it  was  my  first  attempt,  about 
ten  per  cent  of  the  scions  failed  to  grow.     Now  shall  I  saw  the  stub  off 


Fruit  Growing  21 

lower  down  and  try  again,  or  bud  into  one  of  the  sprouts  that  have  grown 
around  the  cut  end?     The  trees  arc  pear  and  cherry. 

You  did  very  well  as  a  beginner  not  to  lose  more  than  one- 
tenth.  Saw  off  below  and  graft  again.  You  might  have  budded  into 
one  of  those  shoots  last  July,  and  if  you  fail  again,  bud  into  the 
new  shoots  next  summer. 

Filling  Holes  in  Trees. 

/  have  a  number  of  trees  that,  on  account  of  poor  pruning  and  improper 
care,  are  decaying  in  the  center.  Many  of  them  are  hollozv  for  a  foot  or 
more  down  the  trunk. 

Excavate  all  the  decayed  wood  with  a  chisel  or  gouge  or  what- 
ever cutting  tool  may  work  well  and  fill  the  cavity  with  Portland 
cement  in  such  a  way  as  to  exclude  moisture.  This  will  prolong  the 
life  and  productiveness  of  the  trees  for  many  years  if  other  con- 
ditions are  favorable. 

Deferring  Bloom  of  Fruit  Trees. 

Have  any  experiments  ever  been  carried  on  definitely  to  decide  what 
causes  early  blossoming  of  fruit  trees?  For  instance,  have  adjacent  trees 
of  the  same  variety  been  treated  definitely  by  putting  a  heavy  mulch  around 
one  to  hold  the  cold  temperature  late  in  the  spring,  leaving  the  other  tree 
unmulched  so  the  roots  could  warm  up? 

It  has  been  definitely  determined  by  the  experiments  of  Pro- 
fessor Whidden  of  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  that  the  swell- 
ing of  the  buds  and  starting  of  the  foliage  of  fruit  trees  is  due  to 
the  action  of  heat  upon  the  aerial  parts  of  the  trees;  that  is,  growth 
is  not  caused  by  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  ground  and  can- 
not be  retarded  by  cooling  the  ground.  Experiments  with  the  use 
of  snow  and  ice  under  trees  by  which  the  ground  has  been  kept 
at  a  low  temperature  have  not  prevented  the  activity  of  the  tree. 
The  only  way  known  to  retard  activity  is  to  spray  the  tree  with 
whitewash  so  that  the  white  color  may  reflect  the  heat  and  prevent 
the  absorption  of  it  by  the  bark,  which  is  usually  of  a  dark  color 
and  therefore  suited  to  heat  absorption.  Retarding  of  growth  is  pos- 
sible in  this  way  for  a  period  of  six  to  ten  days,  which,  of  course, 
in  some  cases  might  be  of  value,  but  the  lengthened  dormancy  is 
probably  too  small  to  constitute  it  of  general  value.  In  whitewash- 
ing, to  determine  what  advantage  there  is  in  it  in  retarding  growth, 
the  tree  should  be  thoroughly  sprayed  with  whitewash  so  as  to  cover 
all  the  wood  some  time  before  the  buds  swell.  In  fact,  it  is  to  prevent 
the  early  swelling  of  the  buds  that  the  whitewashing  is  resorted  to.  It 
is  better  to  make  the  application,  therefore,  a  little  too  early  than  too 
late.  A  specific  date  cannot  be  given  for  it  that  would  be  right  in 
all  localities. 

Repairing  Rabbit  Injuries, 

Your  book  says  in  pruning  young  trees  for  the  first  time,  about  four 
main  branches  should  be  left  and  these  cut  back  to  lo  or  12  inches.    Now, 


22  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

where  the  rabbits  have  priDied  back  to  4  or  5  inches  the  very  ones  I  wanted, 
what  should  be  done?  Some  say,  cut  these  back  to  the  stem,  allowing  new 
shoots  to  start  from  the  base  of  branches  so  removed. 

Cut  back  to  a  bud  near  the  stem,  or  if  you  do  not  see  any,  cut 
back  near  to  the  stem,  but  not  near  enough  to  remove  the  bark  at 
the  base  of  the  shoot,  for  there  are  the  latent  buds  which  should 
give  you  the  growth.  This  should  be  watched,  and  the  best  shoot 
selected  from  each  point  to  make  a  strong  branch,  pinching  back 
or   removing  the   others. 

For  a  Bark  Wound. 

What  is  best  to  do  tvith  an  apricot  or  prune  tree  when  it  has  been  hit 
with  an  implement  and  the  bark  knocked  off? 

Cut  around  the  bark  wound  with  a  sharp  knife  so  as  to  remove 
all  frayed  edges.  Cover  the  exposed  v/ood  with  oil  and  lead  paint 
to  prevent  cracking,  and  the  wound  will  soon  be  covered  with  new 
bark  from  the  sides. 

Bridging  Gopher  Girdles. 

How  shall  I  make  the  bridge-graft  or  root-graft  over  the  trunks  of 
trees  girdled  by  gophers?  Has  tliis  method  proved  successful  in  saving 
trees  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  how  is  it  done? 

The  bridging  over  of  injury  by  mice  by  grafting  has  been  known 
to  be  successful  for  decades  in  countries  where  this  trouble  is  en- 
countered. Undoubtedly  the  same  plan  would  work  in  the  case  of 
all  bark  injuries  which  can  be  bridged.  The  plan  is  to  take  good 
well-matured  shoots  which  are  a  little  longer  than  the  injury  which 
has  to  be  spanned,  making  a  sloping  cut  on  both  ends,  also  a  cut 
into  the  healthy  bark  above  and  below  the  injury,  and  slip  the  cut 
ends  of  the  cutting  into  the  cuts  in  the  bark  so  that  the  ends  go 
under  the  bark  above  and  below,  and  the  cut  ends  are  closely  con- 
nected with  the  growing  layer  of  the  stock.  If  the  cutting  is  made 
a  little  longer  than  the  distance  to  be  spanned,  the  tendency  of  the 
cutting  by  straightening  is  to  hold  itself  in  place.  When  in  place, 
the  connections  should  be  covered  with  wax  to  prevent  drying  out. 

Soil-Binding  Plant  for  Winter. 

What  would  be  the  best  to  plant  in  an  orchard  on  ground  of  a  light 
sandy  sediment  ivhich,  after  plotving,  zvill  move  with  the  strong  winds? 
I  would  like  to  plant  something  that  zvill  benefit  the  ground.  The  winds  are 
the  strongest  from  December  to  April.  This  is  in  the  irrigated  district  and 
I  need  something  that  will  make  a  sod  during  that  period. 

We  would,  in  all  the  valleys,  advise  a  fall  irrigation  (if  the  rains 
are  late)  and  the  sowing  of  burr  clover,  which  when  started  in 
September  will  have  the  ground  well  covered  by  December,  if  you 
keep  the  moisture  right  to  push  it.  Disking  or  plowing  this  under 
in  March  (or  April,  according  to  locality)  will  hold  the  sand  and 
afterward  enrich  it.  You  can  do  this  every  year,  but  probably  you 
will  not  need  to  seed  it  more   than  once. 


Fruit  Growing  23 

Bananas  in   California. 

Is  there  any  reason  zcliy  bananas  would  not  grow  and  bear  in  the 
vicinity  of  Merced  if  they  had  plenty  of  zvaterf  Or  would  the  cool  nights 
at  certain  seasons  keep  them  front  bearing F  IVould  they  do  better  in  the 
Imperial  valley  f 

Bananas  would  suffer  too  severely  from  frost  to  be  profitable  at 
any  point  in  the  interior  valleys  of  California.  A  plant  would  be 
killed  to  the  ground  at  least  every  year  unless  under  glass  or  other 
protection.  There  are  a  few  places  practically  frostless  where 
bananas  can  be  grown  in  this  State,  but  there  is  no  promise  in  com- 
mercial production  because  they  can  be  so  cheaply  imported  from 
the  tropics. 

Carobs  in  California. 

Will  the  carob  tree  (St.  John's  Bread)  do  well  in  the  Sacramento 
valley,  and  is  it  a  desirable  tree  for  lining  a  driveway? 

Carobs  have  been  grown  in  California  for  thirty  years  or  more 
and  they  will  make  a  handsome  driveway  and  give  a  lot  of  pods  for 
the  kids  and  the  pigs — for  they  are  "the  husks  which  the  swine  did 
eat,"  and  both  like  them.  They  ought  to  be  much  more  widely 
planted  in  California  because  they  grow  well  and  are  good  to  look 
upon. 

Spineless  Cactus  Fruit. 

/  have  about  tivo  acres  of  high  land  in  Fresno  county  that  can't  be 
irrigated.  It  is  red  adobe  soil  and  there  is  hardpan  in  it.  Which  kind 
of  fruit  trees  will  grow  and  pay  best?  How  near  may  the  hardpan  be 
to  the  surface  before  I  have  to  blast  it? 

It  is  a  hard  fruit  proposition.  Try  spineless  cactus,  the  fruits  of 
which  are  delicious.  Blasting  would  help  if  there  is  a  moist  sub- 
stratum below  the  hardpan  and  might  enable  you  to  grow  many 
fruits.  If  your  land  is  hard  and  dry  all  the  way  down,  blasting 
would  not  help  you  unless  you  can  get  irrigation.  Presumably  your 
rainfall  is  too  small  for  fruit  unless  you  strike  underflow  below  the 
hardpan. 

Cleaning  Fruit  Trays. 

What  do  you  advise  for  killing  and  removing  the  whitish  mold  that 
forms  on  trays  used  for  drying  prunes?  Would  sunning  the  trays  be 
effective,  or  washing  in  hot  zvater,  or  is  there  some  suitable  fungicide? 

Good  hot  sun  and  dry  wind  will  kill  the  mold.  The  spores  of 
such  a  common  mold  are  waiting  everywhere,  so  that  your  fruit 
would  mold  anyway  if  conditions  were  right.  Still,  scalding  the 
trays  for  cleanliness  and  a  short  trip  through  the  sulphur  box  for 
fungus-killing  is  commended. 

Killing  Moss  on  Old  Trees. 

/  have  some  Bartlett  pear  trees  that  are  covered  with  moss  and 
mold,  and  the   bark  is  rough  and  checked.     I  have  used  potash   (98%), 


24  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

/  pound  to  6  gallons  spray.  It  kills  the  long  moss,  but  the  green  mold 
it  docs  not  seem  to  affect.  The  trees  have  been  sprayed  about  one  week. 
Some  trees  have  been  sprayed  with  a  i  pound  to  lo  gallons  solution  by 
mistake.     Shall  I  spray  these  again  zmth  full  strength,  and  when? 

You  have  done  enough  for  the  moss  at  present.  Even  the  weaker 
solution  ought  to  be  strong  enough  to  clean  the  bark.  Wait  and  see 
how  the  bark  looks  when  the  potash  gets  through  biting;  it  will 
keep  at  it  for  some  time,  taking  a  fresh  hold  probably  with  each  new 
moisture  supply  from  shower  or  damp  air.  The  spray  should  have 
been  shot  onto  the  bark  with  considerable  force — not  simply  sprinkled 
on. 

Shy-Bearing  Apples, 

/  have  some  apple  trees  lo  and  12  years  old  that  do  not  bear  satis- 
factorily, but  persist  in  making  5  to  6  feet  of  new  wood  each  year.  If 
not  cut  back  this  zvinter,  zvill  they  be  more  likely  to  make  fruit  buds? 

Yes,  probably.  Certainly  you  should  try  it.  You  should  also 
cultivate  less  and  slow  down  the  growth.  If  they  then  take  to  bear- 
ing, you  can  resume  moderate  pruning  and  better  cultivation.  This 
is  on  the  assumption  that  your  trees  are  in  too  rich  or  too  moist  a 
place.  But  you  should  satisfy  yourself  by  inquiry  and  observation 
as  to  whether  the  same  varieties  do  bear  well  in  your  vicinity  when 
conditions  are  such  that  slower  growth  is  made.  If  the  variety  is 
naturally  shy  in  bearing,  or  if  it  requires  cross-pollination,  the  pro- 
posed repressive  treatment  might  not  avail  anything.  In  that  case 
you  can  graft  over  the  tree  to  some  variety  which  does  bear  well 
or  graft  part  of  the  trees  to  another  variety  for  cross-pollination. 

No  Apples  on  Quince. 

Hozv  large  a  tree  will  the  Yellow  BelleAeur  apple  make  if  grafted 
or  budded  on  quince  root  at  the  age  of  15  years?  I  have  been  trying  to 
get  some  information  about  dwarf  fruit  trees,  but  it  is  difficult  to  get. 

No  wonder  the  information  is  hard  to  get.  The  Yellow  Belle- 
fleur  will  not  grow  upon  the  quince  at  all,  or  at  least  not  for  long. 
In  growing  dwarf  apples  the  Paradise  stock  is  used,  while  the  quince 
is  used  for  dwarfing  the  pear,  and  many  varieties  of  pears  will  accept 
the  quince  root  which  the  apple  rejects. 

Stock   for  Apples. 

Do  you  recommend  French  seedling  stock  as  greatly  to  be  preferred 
to  that  grotvn  in  this  country? 

French  seedling  stock  is  generally  used  because  it  is  graded  and 
furnished  in  uniform  sizes;  also,  because  it  can  usually  be  purchased 
for  less  than  seedlings  can  be  grown  under  our  labor  conditions. 
Locally  grown  apple  seedlings  are  apt  to  be  irregular  in  size  and,  as 
already  stated,  cost  more  than  the  properly  graded  imported  stock. 


Fruit  Growing  25 

Apples  and  Alfalfa. 

/  have  recently  come  across  a  proposition  to  sozv  apple  orchards  in 
the  interior  of  southern  California  unth  alfalfa.  The  apples  are  said  to 
be  superior  and  the  crop  heavier,  to  say  nothing  of  a  half  or  two-thirds 
of  an  alfalfa  crop  in  addition  to  the  crop  of  apples.  What  do  you  know 
about  it?     Is  alfalfa  being  used  by  others  in  this  way? 

It  is  perfectly  rational  to  grow  alfalfa  in  fruit  orchards  if  the. 
water  supply  is  ample  for  both  the  trees  and  the  intercrop  and  the 
owner  will  not  yield  to  the  temptation  to  waterlog  his  trees  for  the 
sake  of  getting  more  alfalfa.  It  is  even  more  desirable  in  the  interior 
than  near  the  coast,  probably.  In  Arizona  some  growers  have  for  a 
number  of  years  practiced  growing  alfalfa  in  orchards,  cutting  the 
alfalfa  without  removing  it,  counting  that  clippings  are  worth  more 
to  them  through  their  decay  and  the  increase  of  the  humus  content 
of  the  soil.  Even  where  this  is  not  done,  the  alfalfa  will  add  to  the 
humus  of  the  soil  by  its  own  wastes  both  from  root  and  stem.  The 
presence  of  an  alfalfa  cover  reduces  the  danger  of  leaf  and  bark 
burning  either  by  reflected  or  radiated  heat  from  a  smooth  ground 
surface,  and  some  trees  are  very  much  benefited  by  this  protection 
in  regions  of  high  temperature.  This  might  be  expected  to  be  the 
case  with  the  apple,  which  is  somewhat  subject  to  leaf  burning  in 
our  interior  valleys. 

Top  Grafting. 

In  grafting  over  apple  and  pear  trees  to  some  other  variety,  is  it 
advisable  to  cut  oif  and  graft  the  entire  tree  the  first  year  where  the 
trees  are  from  y  to  15  years  old,  or  zvould  it  be  better  to  cut  off  only 
a  part  of  the  top  the  -first  year  and  the  rest  the  following  year? 

In  the  coast  region  it  is  a  good  practice  to  graft  over  the  whole 
tree  at  one  time,  cutting,  however,  above  the  forks  and  not  into  the 
main  stem  below  the  forking.  This  gives  many  scions  which  seem 
able  to  take  care  of  the  sap  successfully.  In  the  interior  valleys,  it 
is  rather  better  practice  to  leave  a  branch  or  two,  cutting  them  out 
at  the  following  winter's  pruning,  for  probably  the  first  year's  grafts 
will  give  you  branches  enough.  This  has  the  effect  of  preventing 
the  drowning  out  of  the  scions  from  too  strong  sap-flow.  Cutting 
back  and  regrafting  of  old  trees  should  be  done  rather  early,  before 
the  most  active  sap-flow  begins.  The  later  in  the  season  the  grafting 
is  done,  and  the  warmer  the  locality,  the  more  desirable  it  seems  to 
be  to  leave  a  branch  or  two  when  grafting. 

Apple  Budding. 

What  is  the  best  time  to  bud  apples? 

Apples  are  budded  in  July  and  August  and  remain  dormant  until 
the   following  spring. 

Mildew  on  Apple -Seedlings. 

Why  do  young  apple  plants  in  the  seed  bed  become  mildczved?  They 
are  in  a  lath  house. 


26  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Because  too  much  moisture  was  associated  with  too  much  shade. 
More  sunshine  would  have  prevented  mildew,  and  if  they  had  enjoyed 
it  the  seedlings  could  have  made  better  use  of  the  water  probably. 

Pruning  Apples. 

Young  apple  trees  set  tivo  years  ago  zvere  cut  back  to  14  to  18  inches 
and  cared  for  as  to  loiv  branching,  proper  spacing,  etc.,  but  the  desired 
branches  zvere  allowed  to  make  full  groivth  to  the  present  time.  They 
have  made  great  growth  and  if  allozvcd  to  continue  zvill  make  too  tall 
trees. 

We  understand  that  your  trees  have  made  two  summers'  growth 
since  pruning.  We  should  cut  back  to  a  good  lateral  wherever  you 
can  find  one  running  at  the  right  direction  at  about  three  to  four 
feet  from  the  last  cut,  and  shorten  the  lateral  more  or  less  accord- 
ing to  the  best  judgment  we  could  form  on  sight  of  the  tree.  In  this 
way  you  can  take  out  the  branches  which  are  running  too  high  and 
make  the  framework  for  a  lower  growth.  Do  not  remove  the  small 
twigs   and  spurs  unless  you  have   too   many  such   shoots. 

Cutting  Back  Apples  and  Pears. 

"California  Fruits"  says  tlie  "apple  does  not  relish  cutting  back,  nor 
is  it  desirable  to  shorten  in  the  branches."  But  zvhcn  a  three-year-old 
tree  gets  above  12  feet  high,  as  many  of  mine  are  doing,  what  are  you 
going  to  do?  I  cut  these  back  some  last  year,  but  up  they  go  again  zvith 
more  branches  than  ever.  The  pears  are  getting  too  tall,  also.  Should  not 
both  apple  and  pear  trees  be  kept  dozmi  to  about  ten  feet? 

The  quotation  you  make  refers  to  old  bearing  trees,  and  indicates 
that  their  pruning  is  not  like  that  of  the  peach,  which  is  continually 
shortened  in  to  keep  plenty  of  new  wood  low  down.  Of  course,  in 
securing  low  and  satisfactorv  branching  on  young  apples,  pears,  etc., 
there  must  be  cutting  back,  and  this  must  be  continued  while  you  are 
forming  the  tree.  If  you  mean  that  these  trees  are  to  be  permanently 
kept  at  ten  feet  high,  you  should  have  planted  trees  worked  on 
dwarfing  stocks.  Such  a  height  does  not  allow  a  standard  tree  free- 
dom enough  for  thrift;  as  they  become  older  they  will  require  from 
twice  to  thrice  the  altitude  you  assign  to  them,  probably.  Pears  can 
be  more  successfully  kept  down  than  apples,  but  not  to  ten  feet  ex- 
cept as  dwarfs. 

Pruning   Old  Apple  Trees. 

How  would  you  prune  apple  trees  eight  or  nine  years  old  that  have 
not  been  cut  back?  There  are  a  great  many  that  have  run  up  20  feet 
high  with  twelve  or  fifteen  main  limbs  and  very  fezv  being  more  than 
two  or  three  inches  in  diameter. 

Remove  cross  branches  which  are  interfering  with  others  and 
thin  out  branches  which  seem  to  be  crowding  each  other  at  their  at- 
tachments to  the  trunk,  by  removing  some  of  them  at  the  starting 
point.  Having  removed  these  carefully  so  as  not  to  knock  oflf  spurs 
from  other  branches,  study  the  tree  as  it  is  thus  somewhat  opened  up 


Fruit  Growing  27 

and  see  where  remaining  branches  can  be  shortened  to  overcome  the 
tendency  to  run  too  high.  Do  not  shear  off  branches  leaving  a  lot 
of  stubs  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tree,  but  always  cut  back  a  main 
branch  to  a  lateral  and  shorten  the  lateral  higher  up  if  desirable. 
This  will  keep  away  from  having  a  lot  of  brush  in  the  top  of  the 
tree.  Study  each  tree  by  itself  for  symmetry  and  balance  of  branches 
and  proceed  by  judgment   rather  than  by  rules  anyone  can  give  you. 

Top- Grafting  Apples. 

Can  I  graft  over  a  fczv  Ben  Davis  apple  trees  25  years  old  or  there- 
abouts, but  thrifty  and  vigorous? 

It  is  certainly  possible,  by  the  old  top-grafting  method  which  has 
been  used  everywhere  with  apples  for  centuries.  Graft  during  the 
winter.  Work  on  the  limbs  above  the  head  so  as  to  preserve  the 
advantage  of  the  old  forking,  using  a  cleft  graft  and  waxing  well. 
It  is  usually  best  to  graft  over  a  part  of  the  limbs  and  the  balance 
a  year  later. 

Will  the  Apples  Be  the  Same  Kind? 

/  have  a  mixed  orchard,  )nostly  Gravensteins,  and  I  want  to  graft 
all  the  other  trees  into  a  Gravenstein  top  if  I  can  do  so  and  at  the  same 
time  get  the  early' Gravenstein  bloom  and  the  fruit  zuould  be  as  satisfac- 
tory as  though  on  other  roots. 

The  new  tree  grown  from  the  grafts  will  behave  just  like  the 
tree   from   which   the   scions   were   taken   if   similarly   thrifty. 

Places  for  Apples. 

What  quality  is  it  in  tlic  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  Watsonville  that  makes 
that  country  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  culture  of  apples?  Are  there  not 
other  portions  of  the  State  -where  apples  could  be  produced  on  a  com- 
mercial basis? 

It  is  not  alone  quality  in  the  soil,  but  character  of  the  climate 
that  underlie  success  in  the  Watsonville  district.  Apples  can  be  and 
are  grown  on  a  commercial  scale  through  the  coast  district  of  Sonoma, 
Mendocino,  and  Humboldt  counties;  also  in  suitable  situations  in  the 
coast  counties  south  of  Santa  Cruz  county.  Along  the  coast,  as  far 
as  deep  retentive  soil  and  the  cool  air  of  the  ocean  extend,  one  may 
expect  to  get  apples  similar  to  those  produced  in  the  Watsonville 
district.  In  the  interior  valleys,  on  suitable  soils  with  adequate  mois- 
ture, early  apples  are  profitably  grown,  while  in  the  higher  foothill 
and  mountain  valleys  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  where  moisture  is 
sufficient,  late  keeping  apples  of  high  quality  are  produced. 

Summer-pruning  Apples. 

Will  summer  pruning  cause  apple  trees  to  bear  fruit  instead  of  grow- 
ing so  much  neiv  luood? 

Over-growth  can  be  repressed  by  summer  pruning,  and  if  done 
just  at   the   right   time   bearing  is   increased  and  late   new   growth   is 


28  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

avoided,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  exactly  the  right  time,  and  it 
has  to  be  fixed  according  to  local  conditions  of  length  of  growing 
season  and  growth  condition  of  the  tree  itself  also.  It  is  better  for 
some  varieties  than  others,  and,  in  fact,  has  to  be  done  wisely.  A 
summer  slashing  of  apple  trees,  simply  because  some  one  says  so,  is 
not  only  expensive,  but  may  do  more  harm  than  good.  Therefore, 
those  inclined  to  it,  should  try  a  few  trees  at  first  and  note  results. 

Grafting  Apple  Seedlings  in  Place. 

/  want  to  plant  apple  trees  for  home  use.  I  have  an  idea  to  plant 
apple  seeds  instead  of  trees:  planting  three  or  four  seeds  for  each  hill, 
right  in  the  place  zvhere  I  would  grow  the  trees,  and  select  the  best  one 
to  graft  on.  I  imll  take  seed  of  Bellefleurs,  which  are  vigorous  growers. 
What  do  you  think?  Will  the  seed  germinate  readily  and  when  is  the 
right  time  to  plant f 

Select  plump,  well  ripened  seed,  keep  them  in  damp  sand  until 
the  ground  begins  to  get  warm  in  January  or  February,  according  to 
location.  But  such  an  undertaking  will  cost  you  vastly  more  in  time, 
in  labor,  and  waste  of  land  than  it  would  to  buy  well-grown  nursery 
trees  budded  with  the  variety  which  you  desire.  Such  trees  would 
give  you  practically  a  uniform  lot  of  trees  in  your  orchard  while 
planting  seedlings  and  grafting  afterward  would  give  you  very  irregu- 
lar and  for  the  most  part  unsatisfactory  results — providing  you  get 
any  seeds  to  grow  at  all  in  the  open  ground,  which  is  doubtful. 

Resistant  Apple  Roots. 

A  few  apple  trees  which  are  almost  dead  from  ravages  of  the  woolly 
aphis.  I  am  going  to  dig  them  out  and  plant  in  their  places  other  apple 
trees  on  woolly  aphis-proof  root.  Will  it  be  necessary  to  use  measures 
to  exterminate  the  woolly  aphis  in  the  old  roots  or  their  places  in  the 
ground  before  planting  neiv  trees  in  the  places  of  the  removed  trees? 

It  is  not  necessary  to  undertake  to  kill  aphis  in  the  ground  when 
you  are  planting  apple  trees  on  resistant  roots.  It  will  give  your 
trees  a  better  start  to  dig  large  holes,  throw  out  the  old  soil,  and 
fill  in  with  some  new  soil  from  another  part  of  the  land  to  be  planted, 
but  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  these  roots  are  resistant,  no  matter 
if  planted  in  the  midst  of  infestation. 

Apples  and  Cherries  for  a  Hot  Place. 

What  kind  of  apple  do  you  think  would  do  best  in  a  dry,  hot  climate? 
What  do  you  think  of  the  Early  Richmond  cherry  in  such  a  place? 

Apples  most  likely  to  succeed  in  a  dry  situation  are  those  which 
ripen  their  fruit  very  early.  The  Red  Astrachan  is  on  the  whole  the 
most  satisfactory,  but  there  are  many  places  which  are  altogether 
too  dry  and  hot  for  any  kind  of  apple.  Whether  cherries  would  suc- 
ceed or  not  you  can  only  tell  by  trying.  Possibly  the  trees  would 
not   live   through   the   summer   if  your   soil   becomes   very   dry.     The 


Fruit  Growing  29 

most  hardy  cherries  are  the  sour  or  pic  cherries  and  the  Early  Rich- 
mond is  one  of  this  group. 

Die-back  of  Apple  Trees. 

What  causes  the  death  of  the  top  shoots  in  apple  trees? 

New  wood  is  sometimes  diseased  by  mildew,  but  die-back  is 
usually  due  to  two  different  causes:  One,  the  accumulation  of  water 
in  the  soil  during  the  excessive  rains  of  mid-winter;  second,  the  oc- 
currence of  low  temperatures,  including  frosts,  after  the  sap  has  risen. 
Which  of  these  causes  operate  in  a  certain  case  depends,  of  course, 
upon  whether  the  soil  was  heavy  and  inclined  to  retain  standing 
water  too  long,  or  whether  there  were  such  frosts  at  about  the  time 
when  the  leaves  should  start.  Sometimes,  of  course,  both  of  these 
conditions  worked  in  the  same  place;  sometimes  one  and  sometimes 
the  other,  but  certainly  both  of  them  are  capable  of  causing  the 
trouble.  There  seems  to  be  no  specific  disease;  it  is  rather  a  matter 
of  unfavorable  conditions  for  growth. 

Storage  of  Apples. 

We  desire  to  store  two  or  three  thousand  boxes  of  apples  for  three 
or  four  months  and  propose  to  do  it  in  this  way:  Make  an  excavation 
in  dry  earth,  putting  at  the  bottom  of  the  excavation  straw.  Upon  this 
straw  place  the  apples,  then  dry  straw  over  the  apples,  and  upon  the  top 
of  this  two  or  three  feet  of  dry  earth.  Will  it  be  a  good  plan  to  pour 
on  water  from  time  to  time  over  the  top  of  this  to  keep  the  apples  and 
all  wet,  or  should  the  apples  be  kept  dry? 

Putting  down  loose  apples  in  a  straw-lined  pit  would  be  very 
expensive.  It  would  invite  decay  by  bruising  the  fruit,  and  the  result 
would  probably  be  a  worthless  mixture  of  rotten  fruit  and  straw. 
The  fruit  should  be  stored  in  boxes  or  shallow  trays  to  reduce  pres- 
sure and  promote  ventilation,  and  not  in  bins  or  large  piles.  Apples 
will  keep  for  a  long  time  in  good  condition  if  the  boxes  are  put  in 
piles  in  the  shade,  covered  with  straw,  which  should  be  slightly 
moistened  from  time  to  time;  but  in  that  case  there  would  not  be 
such  an  accumulation  of  moisture  and  there  would  be  ventilation  at 
all  times.  Apples  should  be  kept  dry,  but  they  will  shrivel  and  be- 
come unmarketable  unless  the  air  in  which  they  are  stored  is  kept 
reasonably  moist.  This  is  generally  accomplished  by  making  apple 
houses  with  double  walls  and  roof  to  exclude  heat  and  with  an  earth 
or  concrete  floor  which  can  be  sprinkled  from  time  to  time  with  a 
hose. 

Apple  Root-grafts, 

/  have  an  old  apple  orchard  and  ivould  like  to  have  tivo  or  three 
of  the  best  varieties  positively  identified,  so  that  I  can  order  these  kinds 
from  the  nursery  for  next  year's  planting. 

Old  California  apple  orchards  have  many  varieties  no  longer 
propagated    largely.      If   you    greatly   desire   to    have   a   few   trees   of 


30  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

exactly  the  varieties  which  you  are  now  growing,  you  run  some  risk 
of  mistake  in  ordering  by  name,  but  if  you  make  some  root-grafts 
by  taking  a  piece  of  the  smaller  roots  of  the  tree,  which  you  can 
dig  out,  say  about  the  size  of  a  pencil,  and  graft  scions  upon  them, 
you  can  secure  root-grafts  for  planting  in  nursery  this  year  and  in 
that  way  be  sure  to  have  trees  of  exactly  the  same  kind.  Root- 
grafts  can  be  made  in  the  winter,  placed  in  sand  which  is  kept  moist 
and  not  wet,  planted  out  as  soon  as  the  ground  warms  up,  and  you 
will  get  immediate  and  very  satisfactory  growth  in  that  way. 

Pruning  Old  Apple  Trees. 

/  haz'e  an  old  orchard  containing  some  apple  trees  about  40  years 
old — trees  zvell  shaped  hut  with  plenty  of  main  branches  and  limbs  all 
very  long.  The  trees  bear  profusely  in  alternate  years  hut  the  fruit  is 
small.  In  pruning  zvould  you  advise  cutting  out  some  main  limbs  where 
there  are  over  three  or  four  and  thus  making  a  big  wood  reduction 
(zvhere  sunburn  protection  can  still  be  guarded)  or  zvould  you  only 
shorten  in  the  branches  and  thin  the  fruit  severely? 

.  Do  not  remove  main  branches  unless  they  are  clearly  too  numer- 
ous or  have  been  allowed  to  grow  to  interference  with  each  other  or 
have  become  weakened  or  feeble  in  some  way.  In  such  cases  the  space 
is  worth  more  than  the  branch.  If  the  tree  has  a  fair  framework  do 
not  disturb  it  in  order  to  get  down  to  an  arbitrary  limit  of  three  or 
four  main  branches;  sometimes  the  tree  can  carry  more.  If  the  tree 
is  too  thick,  thin  it  out  by  removing  side  branches  of  more  or  less 
size — saving  the  best,  judging  by  both  vigor  and  position.  Work 
through  the  whole  top  in  this  way  until  you  reach  the  best  judgment 
you  can  form  of  enough  space  and  light  for  good  interior  foliage  and 
fruit.  Apple  branches  should  seldom  be  shortened,  and  when  this 
seems  desirable,  cut  to  a  side  branch  and  not  to  a  stub  which  will 
make  a  lot  of  weak  shoots  or  brush  in  the  top  of  the  tree. 

Pruning  Apple  Trees. 

There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  here  regarding  the  pruning  of 
three-year  or  older  apple  trees.  Many  people  cut  back  three,  four  and 
five-year-old  trees  half  the  season's  growth;  others  only  cut  back  six 
inches. 

Apple  trees  are  cut  back  during  their  early  life  to  cause  branch- 
ing and  to  secure  short  distances  between  the  larger  laterals  on  the 
main  branches.  This  secures  a  lower,  stronger  tree.  Cutting  back 
twice  or  three  times  should  secure  a  good  framework  of  this  kind, 
and  then  the  apple  should  not  be  regularly  and  systematically  cut 
back  as  the  peach  and  apricot  are.  It  is  not  possible  to  prescribe 
definite  inches,  because  cutting  back  is  a  matter  of  judgment  and  de- 
pends upon  how  thick  the  growth  is,  what  its  position  and  relation 
to  other  shoots,  etc.  The  chief  point  in  cutting  back  is  to  know 
where  you  wish  the  next  laterals  to  come  on  the  shortened  shoot,  and 
if  you    do   not   wish   more   laterals   at   once,   do   not   cut   back   at   all. 


Fruit  Growing  31 

Treatment  of  laterals  which  come  of  themselves  is  another  matter. 
Do  not  clip  the  ends  of  shoots  unless  laterals  are  desired.  If  you 
keep  clipping  the  ends  of  apple  twigs,  you  will  get  no  fruit  from  some 
varieties. 

Grafting  Almond  on  Peach. 

/  had  good  success  unth  the  peach  trees  zvhich  I  grafted  to  almond 
last  spring,  getting  about'  95  per  cent  of  a  stand,  and  many  of  the  grafts 
now  are  one  and  one-half  inches  diameter.  In  each  of  the  trees  I  left 
about  a  quarter  of  the  branches,  to  keep  up  the  grotmng  process  of  the 
tree.  The  universal  practice  around  here  in  grafting  is  to  cut  the  whole 
top  off  the  tree  at  the  time  of  grafting,  but  the  increased  grozvth  and 
vigor  of  the  grafts  I  have  has  proved  to  me  and  other  groiuers  around, 
that  much  better  results  are  obtained  by  leaving  part  of  the  top  on  the 
tree  at  the  time  of  grafting. 

You  did  exceedingly  well  with  your  grafting.  It  seems  a  more 
rational  way  to  proceed  than  by  a  total  amputation,  and  yet  ample 
success  is  often  attained  by  grafting  for  a  whole  new  top  at  once. 

Pruning  Almonds. 

Should  the  main  brandies  be  shortened  in  a  three-year-old  almond 
tree?  Of  course,  I  intend  to  thin  out  the  branches.  Some  growers  here 
advise  me  to  shorten  the  main  branches;  others  say  do  not  shorten  them, 
as  it  tends  to  give  the  trees  a  brushy  top. 

Although  some  growers  are  contending  for  regular  shortening-in 
of  the  almond  as  is  practiced  on  the  peach,  it  is  not  usual  to  cut 
back  almond  trees  after  they  have  reached  three  years  of  age  and 
have  assumed  good  form.  Of  course,  if  cutting  back  is  done,  the 
shoots  coming  from  near  the  amputation  must  be  thinned  out  to 
prevent  the  brushiness  j^our  adviser  properly  objected  to. 

Budding  and  Grafting  Almonds. 

Is  it  better  to  bud  or  graft  bitter  almond  seedlings  of  one  year's 
growth,  and,  as  they  must  be  transplanted,  would  it  be  proper  to  do  the 
work  this  season  or  defer  it  for  another  year's  growth? 

Your  almond  seedlings  should  have  been  budded  in  July  or  August 
after  starting  from  the  nut,  which  would  have  fitted  them  for  planting 
in  orchard  the  following  winter  as  dormant  buds,  as  they  cannot  stay 
where  they  are  another  season.  Now  you  can  transplant  to  nursery 
rows  in  another  place:  cut  back  and  graft  as  the  buds  are  swelling, 
allowing  a  good  single  shoot  to  grow  from  below  on  those  which  do 
not  start  the  grafts  into  which  you  can  bud  in  June,  and  cut  back  the 
stock  to  force  growth  as  soon  as  the  buds  have  taken.  In  this  way 
you  will  get  the  whole  stock  into  trees  for  planting  out  next  winter. 
Some  will  be  large  and  some  small,  but  all  will  come  through  if  planted 
in  good  soil  and  cared  for  properly.  Of  course,  you  can  plant  out  the 
seedlings  and  graft  and  bud  in  the  orchard,  but  it  will  be  a  lot  of 
trouble  and  you  will  get  very  irregular  results. 


32  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Cutting  Back  Almonds. 

/  haz'e  some  nice  thrifty  tzvo-ycar-old  almond  trees  which  I  did  not 
"top"  this  spring.  The  limbs  are  from  about  four  to  seven  or  eight  feet 
long.     Would  it  not  be  best  to  "top"  them  yet? 

Cut  them  back  to  a  shoot  of  this  year's  growth,  removing  about 
a  third  of  last  year's  growth,  perhaps.  This  will  give  you  lower  and 
better  branching. 

Almond  Planting. 

/  am  contemplating  the  planting  of  about  five  to  eight  acres  of  almonds: 
what  variety  is  best  to  plant? 

Before  planting  so  many  almonds,  you  should  determine  how 
satisfactory  the  almond  is  in  bearing  in  your  location.  Unless  you 
can  find  satisfactory  demonstration  of  this  fact,  it  is  hazardous  to 
plant  such  an  acreage.  On  the  other  hand,  if  you  find  that  almonds 
are  bearing  satisfactorily,  the  kinds  which  are  perhaps  most  satisfac- 
tory to  plant  are  Nonpareil,  Texas  Prolific,  Ne  Plus  Ultra  and  Drake's 
Seedling.  The  Texas  Prolific  and  Drake's  Seedling  are  abundant 
bearers  and  profitable  because  of  the  size  of  the  crop,  although  the 
price  is  lower  than  the  soft-shelled  varieties.  Nonpareil  and  Ne  Plus 
Ultra.  These  two  varieties  are  such  energetic  pollinizers  that  they 
not  only  bear  well  themselves,  but  force  the  bearing  of  the  larger 
varieties  mentioned.  Every  third  row  in  your  plantation  should  be 
either  Texas  Prolific  or  Drakes'  Seedlings,  which  would  give  you 
two-thirds  of  the  larger  varieties  and  one-third  of  the  smaller.  There 
are,  of  course,  other  soft-shelled  almonds  which  are  worth  planting 
and  are  being  considerably  planted  in  localities  where  they  do  well. 
This  you  can  ascertain  by  inquiry  among  local  growers  and  nursery- 
men. The  planting  of  a  good  proportion  of  active  pollinizers  is  the 
most  important  point. 

Almond  Pollination. 

My  almond  trees  look  healthy  but  the  fruit  seems  to  be  diseased.  Is 
it  necessary  to  have  male  and  female  trees,  and  how  can  one  distinguish 
them? 

The  almond  is  monoecious  and  has  perfect  blossoms,  therefore, 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  male  and  female  trees  in  the  case  of  the 
almond,  but  most  of  the  best  soft-shelled  almonds  are  self-sterile  and 
need  cross-pollination  from  another  variety.  This  is  discussed  else- 
where in  answer  to  another  question. 

Roots  for  the  Almond. 

Which  is  the  best  root  to  have  the  almond  grafted  on,  peach  or  bitter 
almond?     The  soil  is  sandy. 

The  bitter  almond  and  the  hard-shelled  sweet  almond  are  both 
used  and  we  are  not  aware  that  any  particular  advantage  has  been 
demonstrated  for  either  of  them.  The  almond  does  well  on  peach 
roots  also,  but  the  almond  is  a  better  root  where  the  soil  conditions 
suit  it. 


4 


Fruit  Growing  33 

Longevity  of  Almond  and  Peach. 

What  is  difference  in  life  of  peach  and  almond  in  California? 

The  almond  is  the  longer-lived,  but  we  have  seen  both  assuming 
the  aspect  of  forest  trees  in  abandoned  pioneer  places.  Both  arc  apt 
to  live  longer  than  their  planters,  if  soil  and  moisture  conditions  favor. 

Almond  Seedlings. 

/  have  been  told  that  almond  trees  raised  from  seed,  no  matter  ivhat 
kind  of  seed  planted,  zvill  produce  bitter  almonds.     Is  this  a  fact? 

It  is  not  a  fact.  The  majority  will  probably  be  hard-shell,  sweet 
and  bitter,  but  others  will  be  soft-shell,  medium-shell,  paper-shell, 
and  everything  else  you  ever  heard  of  in  the  almond  line.  The  almond 
has  the  sportiest  kind  of  seedlings. 

Do  Not  Plant  Almonds  in  Place. 

/  have  30  acres  zvhich  I  intend  to  plant  to  almonds  and  peaches, 
and  I  thought  of  planting  the  sprouted  nuts  and  pits  zvliere  I  wanted  my 
trees,  and  budding  the  same  there  in  orchard  form.  As  one  or  tzvo  years' 
use  of  the  land  is  not  considered,  zi'hat  is  your  advice?  My  idea  is  to 
plant  in  orchard  at  start  so  as  not  to  disturb  roots,  as  zvhen  grozvn  in 
nursery  and  transplanted  in  orchard.  Would  it  not  progress  as  rapidly? 
Would  you  advise  budding  peaches  on  almond  roots;  if  not,  zvJiy?  My 
idea  is  that  it  zvould  giz'e  a  longer-lived  tree. 

We  would  do  nothing  of  the  kind.  If  we  decided  it  better  to 
grow  trees  than  to  buy  them,  we  would  grow  and  bud  the  seedlings 
in  nursery  and  not  in  the  tield.  Field  budding  is  open  to  all  kinds 
of  injuries  and  growth  from  it,  when  saved  from  cultivation  and  all 
kinds  of  intruders,  is  irregular  and  uncertain.  As  for  starting  the  roots 
from  the  nut  in  place,  it  is  largely  a  fanciful  consideration.  We  count 
it  no  gain  for  the  walnut  which  makes  a  tap  root,  and  still  less  gainful 
for  the  almond  and  peach,  which  usually  make  spreading  roots.  To 
cut  off  a  tap  root  does  not  prevent  the  tree  from  rooting  deeply  if 
the  soil  is  favorable.  As  to  use  of  the  land,  you  lose  time  by  growing 
the  seedlings  in  place.  The  peach  does  well  on  the  almond  root 
if  soil  conditions  favor  the  almond.  Perhaps  it  gives  longer  life  to  the 
peach,  but  the  profitable  life  of  the  peach  tree  in  a  proper  soil  does 
not  depend  on  the  root;  it  depends  upon  the  treatment  of  the  top  in 
pruning  for  renewal  of  branches. 

Almond  and  Peach. 

With  water-table  at  18  feet,  zvhich  root  is  best  for  almond  trees? 
The  experience  around  here  is  that  the  peach  root  starts  best.  Which 
root  is  most  durable?  What  is  the  life  of  the  peach  root  and  of  the 
almond? 

It  is  not  merely  a  question  of  depth  to  water,  but  of  character  of 
the  soil  above  the  water.     Neither  of  the  roots  will  stand  heavy  soil 


34  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

vvhicli  liolds  water  too  long,  and  both  enjoy  a  free  loam  which  drains 
readily  down  to  the  water-table  or  bottom  water.  If  the  soil  is  rather 
sandy,  letting  the  water  down  very  quickly,  the  almond  is  better  in 
getting  to  it  than  the  peach.  If  it  is  finer  and  still  well  drained  the 
peach  will  do  well,  and  the  almond  enjoys  that  also.  The  almond 
probably  can  be  counted  on  to  stand  coarser  soil  and  greater  drouth 
than  the  peach  and  under  such  conditions  will  outlive  the  peach, 
probably,  but  both  of  them  will  live  twenty  to  thirty  years  or  more 
if  pruned  in  the  head  to  get  enough  new  wood  and  the  trunk  is  kept 
from  sunburn.    Aside  from  this  choose  the  almond  root  for  the  almond. 

Pollination  of  Almonds. 

/  have  Drake's  Seedling  almonds.  Some  people  have  told  me  that 
I  must  plant  some  hardshell  variety  bctivccn  them,  otherwise  they  will 
not  bear. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  plant  hardshell  almonds  near  Drake's  Seed- 
ling trees  in  order  to  have  them  bear.  Some  varieties  of  almonds 
will  set  few  nuts  unless  they  are  cross-pollinated,  but  these  are  the 
paper-shell  varieties,  as  a  rule — the  Nonpareil,  IXL  and  Ne  Plus  Ultra 
— and  for  these  the  Drake's  Seedling  or  Texas  Prolific  is  planted  as  a 
pollenizer.  The  highest-priced  nut  of  all  is  the  Nonpareil,  and  it  is 
also  a  good  bearer  when  in  a  good  location  and  planted  with  Drake's 
or  Texas  Prolific. 

Stick-tight  Almonds. 

/  have  leased  seven  acres  of  bearing  almond  trees  which  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  being  reasonably  well  cared  for.  I  notice  a  fezv  trees  that 
still  have  almonds  on   ("stick-tights").     What  is  the  cause  and  remedy? 

The  occurrence  of  stick-tights  is  generally  due  to  lack  of  moisture 
and  thrifty  growth,  although  some  trees  may  be  weak  from  some 
other  cause  and  therefore  deficient  in  sap-flow,  which  manifests  itself 
in  that  way.  Single  nuts  may  also  fall  into  that  condition  of  mal- 
nutrition. We  know  no  remedy  except  to.  keep  the  trees  in  good 
thrift  by  cultivation  or  by  the  use  of  irrigation  if  necessary. 

Shy-bearing  Apricots. 

Why  do  my  apricot  trees  not  bring  fruit?  They  seem  healthy  and  are 
vigorous-looking  trees.  Five  large  trees  have  not  home  lOO  pounds  of 
fruit  in  three  years.     The  trees  are  not  over  six  years  old. 

You  may  have  a  shy-bearing  kind  of  apricot,  of  which  there  are 
many,  or  the  trees  may  have  grown  too  fast  to  hold  the  fruit,  or  the 
frost  or  north  wind  may  have  blasted  the  bloom.  Stop  winter  pruning, 
and  summer  prune  to  prevent  excessive  growth;  reduce  irrigation; 
try  to  convince  the  apricot  that  it  is  not  a  "green  bay  tree"  and  see 
what  will  happen. 

Pruning  Apricots. 

In  pruning  apricots,  if  there  should  be  a  hollow  center  of  a  big  branch 
in  center  of  a  seven-year-old  tree,  should  it  be  cut  out  with  summer  prun- 


Fruit  Growing  35 

ingf  Should  heavy  grozving  apricots  he  summer  pruned?  Would  it  be 
all  right  to  tJiin  out  a  dense  growth  of  ivood  in  the  prune  trees  in  Sep- 
tember? 

It  is  always  desirable  to  cut  below  a  hollow  in  a  limb  if  possible. 
Where,  however,  this  would  necessitate  cutting  below  the  desirable 
laterals,  the  cavitj'  may  be  filled  with  cement  and  thus  rendered  ser- 
viceable for  some  years.  Summer  pruning  of  the  apricot  is  desirable 
if  the  growth  is  heavy  and  the  tree  has  reached  a  bearing  age.  Thin- 
ning out  of  prune  trees  can  be  undertaken  in  the  autumn,  providing 
the  tree  has  practically  finished  its  growth,  as  indicated  by  the  change 
in  the  color  and  pose  of  the  leaves. 

Apricot  Propagation. 

Can  Royal  apricots  be  grafted  into  seedling  apricots?  Do  the  scions 
do  well?    What  is  the  best  time  to  graft  them? 

The  apricot  is  grafted  readily  by  the  ordinary  cleft  grafting, 
amputating  above  the  forks  if  the  tree  is  low-headed  enough  to  allow 
you  to  work  into  the  limbs  instead  of  the  trunk.  Grafts  will  take  all 
right  in  the  trunk  by  bark  grafting,  but  working  in  smaller  limbs  makes 
a  stronger  tree.  This  is  for  old  trees  and  the  grafting  is  done  during 
the  winter.  Younger  seedlings  can  be  cleft  or  whip  grafted  in  the 
stems,  but  it  is  better  to  bud  into  the  young  seedlings  with  plump 
buds  of  the  current  year's  growth,  in  June,  and  by  shortening  in  the 
seedling  above  the  buds  as  soon  as  they  have  taken,  get  a  growth 
on  the  bud  in  the  latter  half  of  the  same  growing  season.  In  nursery 
practice,  trees  are  usually  made  by  budding  in  July  or  August  into 
seedlings  which  are  then  growing  from  the  seed  planted  the  previous 
winter.  Little  seedlings  from  under  old  trees  may  be  carefully  trans- 
planted to  nursery  rows  in  the  spring  and  budded  the  same  summer. 
Cultivated  well  and  irrigated  if  necessary,  they  will  not  suffer  from  this 
transplanting. 

Renewing  Old  Apricots, 

Shall  I  prune  back  heavily  a  15  to  20-year-old  apricot  tree  ivhich  did 
not  mature  its  fruit  this  season,  I  think  on  account  of  neglect?  It  zvas 
very  poorly  cultivated  and  not  irrigated,  consequently  looks  very  sick. 

Cut  back  all  the  main  branches  to  six  or  eight  feet  from  the 
ground,  leaving  on  whatever  small  growth  there  may  be  below  that 
height.  Paint  the  stubs  and  thin  out  the  shoots  next  summer  to  get 
the  right  number  of  new  branches  properly  distributed.  Whether  you 
will  get  a  good  renewal  of  the  head  depends  upon  whether  the  sick- 
ness is  in  the  root  or  not.  Cut  back  just  before  the  buds  swell  toward 
the  end  of  the  dormant  season. 

Summer  Pruning  of  Apricots. 

Is  it  feasible  to  prune  Hvc-ycar-old  apricot  trees  in  August?  They 
seem  in  good  growth  and  have  been  irrigated  three  times  this  scasoti, 
though  they  have  never  been  pruned  very  closely. 


36  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Summer  pruning  would  be  perfectly  proper  and  advisable. 
Summer  pruning  immediately  after  the  fruit  is  picked,  has  become 
much  more  general,  and  winter  pruning  has  proportionately  de- 
creased. Young  trees  are  winter  pruned  to  promote  low  branching 
and  short,  stout  limbs;  bearing  trees  are  summer  pruned  to  promote 
fruit  bearing  and  check  wood  growth — the  excess  of  bearing  shoots 
being    removed    by    thinning    during    the    winter. 

Wild   Cherries. 

Where  do  the  Malialeb  and  Mazzard  cherries  groiv  naturally?  Hoiv 
large  are  the  trees,  and  zvJiat  kind  of  fruit  do  they  bear? 

The  Mazzards,  of  which  there  are  many,  and  some  of  them 
wild  in  the  Eastern  States,  are  counted  inferior  seedlings  of  the 
species  avium,  and  are  tall,  large  trees,  the  fruit  being  small  and 
rather  acrid  and  colors  various.  The  Mahaleb  is  a  European  type 
with  a  smaller  tree,  fruit  inferior  to  the  Mazzards,  and  used  as  a 
root  under  soil  and  climatic  conditions  under  which  the  Mazzard 
is  not  hardy  and  vigorous.  Neither  of  the  kinds  are  worth  con- 
sidering for  their  fruit. 

Pruning  Cherries. 

/  have  some  cherry  trees  that  have  not  been  pruned.  They  are  beau- 
tiful trees,  but  it  a  requires  a  24-foot  ladder  to  get  near  the  top  limbs.  The 
side  limbs  reach  from  tree  to  tree.  They  had  a  splendid  crop  this  year. 
People  here  tell  me  never  to  prune  cherry  trees.  One  man  who  claims 
considerable  experience  zmth  fruit  savs  prune  them  as  soon  as  the  crop  is 
off. 

Your  cherry  trees  should  have  been  pruned  for  the  first  two 
or  three  years  quite  severely,  in  order  to  secure  better  branching 
and  strength  in  the  main  branches.  If  this  is  done,  and  the  trees 
come  into  full  bearing,  very  little  pruning  has  to  be  done  after- 
ward, except  removing  diseased,  interfering  or  surplus  branches, 
if  there  are  too  many.  It  is  perfectly  safe  to  cut  back  the  trees 
which  you  now  have  as  you  have  been  advised  to  do,  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen  or  after  they  have  begun  to  turn  yellow.  The  trees 
can  be  safely  topped  and  thinned,  for  the  cherry  accepts  pruning 
very  readily.  Even  considerable  amounts  of  the  tops  have  been 
cut  ofif  at  fruit-picking  time  from  trees  which  have  been  running  too 
high,  so  that  the  fruit  could  be  secured,  and  this  has  not  injured 
the  trees,  according  to  our  own  experience  and  observation.  Cherries 
can  be  summer-pruned  to  check  excessive  growth  and  to  promote 
fruit-bearing,  but  as  your  trees  have  already  begun  to  bear  well, 
this  treatment  does  not  seem  to  be  necessary.  You  should  do  fall  and 
winter  pruning  for  the  shape  of  the  trees. 

Training  Cherry  Grafts. 

/  have  grafted  a  lot  of  seedling  cherries,  leaving  two  or  three  buds  on 
each  piece  of  grafted  zvood.     In  planting  these  out,  shall  I  put  the  union 


Fruit  Growing  37 

under  ground  (they  are  grafted  at  the  crozun  of  the  root)  and  shall  I 
loosen  the  cloth  a  little  later  ivhen  they  start  to  grozuf  Hozo  can  I  get 
the  head  for  the  tree?  Should  I  let  only  one  shoot  form,  and  zuhen  it  is 
OS  high  as  I  ivant  it,  cut  it  off  as  I  would  a  tree  gotten  from  a  nursery? 

If  you  have  used  waxed  cloth  in  your  grafting,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  loosen  it  after  the  tree  gets  a  good  start.  Common  unwaxed 
cloth  could  be  trusted  to  decay  soon  enough,  probably,  but  it  should 
be  looked  at  to  see  that  it  is  not  binding.  The  union  should  not 
be  placed  much  below  the  ground  surface,  although  it  can  be  safely 
covered,  and  the  future  stem  may  look  the  better  for  it.  One  shoot 
could  be  allowed  to  grow  from  each  graft,  choosing  the  best  ones 
and  pinching  the  others  so  that  they  will  stop  extension  and  hold 
leaves  during  the  first  season.  These  can  be  cleanly  removed  at  the 
first  winter  pruning  at  the  time  3'ou  head  back  the  main  shoot  to 
the  proper  height. 

Restoring  Cherry  Trees. 

/  have  about  tzvo  acres  of  cherry  trees  in  Sonoma  county  said  to  be 
about  20  years  old.  They  are  in  a  z^ery  neglected  condition  and  I  am 
desirous  of  putting  them  in  good  shape  for  next  year's  crop.  They  are  in 
a  very  light  sandy  loain  soil  zvhich  is  easily  zuorked. 

Cherry  trees  under  good  growing  conditions  and  proper  care  are 
very  long  lived  in  California  and  bear  abundant  crops  when  thirty  and 
more  years  of  age.  In  the  San  Jose  district  and  elsewhere  there  are 
orchards  considerably  older  than  the  limit  stated  and  are  still  very 
profitable.  If  your  trees  have  been  so  neglected  that  the  branches 
have  died  back,  the  trees  should  be  pruned,  of  course,  cutting  out  all  dead 
wood  and  shortening  weak  or  dying  branches  to  a  point  where  a  good 
strong  shoot  can  be  found.  Then  a  good  application  of  farmyard 
manure  plowed  in  during  the  rainy  season,  followed  by  summer  cul- 
tivation for  moisture  retention.  Although  the  cherry  is  very  hardy, 
it  is  quite  likely  to  suffer  on  light  soils  which  become  too  dry.  On 
such  soils  as  yours  there  is  little  if  any  danger  of  too  much  water  in 
the  winter,  unless  the  land  lies  low,  but  the  injury  to  the  tree  comes 
from  the  lack  of  moisture  during  the  summer  time,  and  this,  with 
your  abundant  rainfall,  you  can  probably  assure  by  thorough  summer 
cultivation. 

Renewing  Cherry  Trees. 

We  have  cherry  trees  set  out  diamond  shape  about  16  feet  apart.  IVc 
cannot  take  out  every  other  tree  and  have  any  order,  so  zve  ask  you  if 
it  zvould  be  possible  to  cut  the  trees  back  and  keep  them  pruned  dozen  to 
a  smaller  sice.  The  trees  are  about  20  years  old  and  arc  dying  back  quite 
badly. 

If  the  trees  are  dying  for  lack  of  summer  moisture  it  is  idle  to 
do  much  for  them  until  you  can  give  them  irrigation  right  after  the 
fruit  ripens.  The  cherry  tree  takes  kindly  to  cutting  back  and  will 
give  good  new  fruit-bearing  shoots  if  the  roots  are  in  good  condition. 
It  is  desirable  to  remove  surplus  branches  entirely  rather  than  to  cut 
back  everything  to  a  definite  height,  the  branches  to  be  removed  being 


38  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

those  which  show  disposition  to  die  back  and  those  which  are  running 
out  too  far  so  as  to  reduce  the  space  between  the  trees  or  to  interfere 
with  branches  from  other  trees.  Branches  which  are  failing  above 
can  in  some  cases  be  cut  back  to  a  strong  thrifty  lateral  branch  below. 
Shortening-in  branches  high  up  is  less  desirable  because  it  forces  out 
too  much  new  growth  in  the  top  of  the  tree  and  carries  the  fruit  so 
high  that  picking  would  be  expensive.  All  cuts  of  any  size  should  be 
painted  to  prevent  the  wood  from  checking. 

Pruning  Cherries. 

I  have  cherry  trees  in  their  third  season  which  have  been  given  the 
usual  zvinter  pruning.  The  trees  are  putting  forth  a  great  many  more 
branches  than  are  required,  and  naturally  many  of  the  branches  are  grozv- 
ing  across  the  tree.  In  cutting  these  extra  branches,  I  am  informed  that 
there  is  a  way  to  trim  them  so  that  they  zvill  eventually  form  fruit  spurs. 
I  had  an  idea  that  in  order  to  do  this  it  would  be  zvell  to  cut  about  one 
inch  from  the  main  branch.  Some  one  has  told  me  that  this  would  merely 
cause  the  little  branch  to  sprout  again. 

Cherry  shoots  which  are  not  required  or  desired  for  branch- 
forming  can  be  transferred  into  fruit  spurs,  if  the  tree  is  of  bearing 
age,  by  shortening  them  in.  Do  not,  however,  cut  at  an  arbitrary 
distance  of  one  inch  from  the  starting  point,  but  rather  save  one  or 
two  buds  at  whatever  distance  from  the  starting  point  these  may  be 
growing.  If  the  tree  is  too  young  to  bear,  only  growth  shoots  may 
appear  from  these  buds,  but  they  are  likely  to  be  short  and  will 
support  fruit  spurs  later.  This  practice  should  not  be  carried  to 
excess  or  you  will  have  too  many  small  shoots  which  will  not  get 
light  enough  to  bear  good  fruit,  even  if  fruit  spurs  should  appear. 

Pollination  of  Black  Tartarian. 

There  are  many  old  Tartarian  cherry  trees  around  our  district  that 
have  only  borne  a  few  cherries  in  years.  There  are  Bing,  Royal  Atm  and 
Early  Purple  Guigncs  here  zvith  these,  but  they  seldom,  if  ever,  bloom  zvith 
the  Tartarian  at  the  proper  time  to  pollinate.  What  varieties  would  cause 
the  trees  to  bear? 

Sterility  of  the  Black  Tartarian  is  rather  unusual.  In  the  coast 
regions,  Bing,  Black  Tartarian  and  Early  Purple  Guigne  are  all  con- 
sidered pollinizers  for  the  Royal  Ann.  Inversely  all  these  should 
be  pollinizers  for  the  Black  Tartarian,  if  that  variety  requires  such 
assistance,  which  we  have  all  along  supposed  that  it  did  not. 

Treatment  of  Fig  Suckers. 

A  few  young  £g  trees  are  not  grozving  from  the  tops,  but  are  sending 
out  suckers,  in  some  cases  above  and  others  below  the  point  of  grafting. 
Had  I  better  let  these  suckers  grozv  and  see  what  comes  from  them  or 
plant  new  trees? 

Graft  near  the  ground  all  those  which  are  sending  suckers  from 
below  the  graft.     Suckers  from  above  grafting  point  can  be   trained 


Fruit  Growing  39 

into    trees    by    selecting    the    best,    tying   to    stakes    to    straighten    up 
and   removing  all   other   suckers   but   the  one   selected. 

No  Gopher-proof  Fig  Roots. 

Is  it  necessary  that  figs  should  be  grafted  in  some  other  roots  to 
keep  the  gophers  from  destroying  the  trees?     What  root  should  I  order? 

Figs  are  not  grown  on  any  other  than  fig  roots  and  are  generally 
propagated  by  rooted  cuttings  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  ex- 
pense of  grafting.  The  fruit  must  then  be  protected  by  killing  the 
gophers  rather  than  by  an  efifort  to  get  the  tree  upon  a  gopher- 
proof   root. 

Pollination  of  Bartletts. 

Would  Clapp's  Favorite  be  a  good  pollinizer  for  the  Bartlett  as 
well  as  the  White  Doyenne? 

The  white  Doyenne  and  the  Clapp's  Favorite  usually  begin  to 
bloom  three  or  four  days  later  than  the  Bartlett,  but  the  Bartlett 
period  extends  about  ten  days  into  the  blooming  period  of  the 
others.  Therefore,  your  question  is  to  be  answered  in  the  affirmative; 
that  is,  if  the  Bartlett  needs  pollination,  it  will  be  liklcy  to  get  it 
from  either  of  these  varieties. 

Cornice    Pears, 

Would  you  plant  Cornice  pears  instead  of  Bartletts,  and  why?  What 
is  their  behavior  as  to  bearing?  Do  they  require  any  different  treatment 
than  Bartletts?    What  roots?    Do  they  need  other  varieties  for  pollinising? 

Do  not  plant  Comice  instead  of  Bartletts  except  for  those  who 
have  tested  out  the  Comice  to  their  production  and  selling.  Though 
satisfactory  in  some  places,  it  makes  no  such  wide  record  of  success 
as  the  Bartlett  and  should  be  planted  only  on  the  basis  of  experience 
with  it.  Its  propagation  and  culture  are  the  same  as  other  pears. 
It  takes  to  the  quince  all  right  if  you  want  dwarf  trees.  We  have 
no  record  of  its  pollination  needs,  but  as  the  Bartlett  in  California 
defies  its  Eastern  reputation  for  self-sterility,  it  is  likely  that  Comice 
may  also  take  care  of  itself,  for  it  is  not  handicapped  by  such  Eastern 
condemnation. 

No  Pears  on  Peach. 

/  sazv,  the  other  day,  some  Bartlett  pear  grafts  in  Sahvay  peach  trees, 
and  the  party  informed  me  that  he  had  seen  three-year-old  grafts  that  had 
pears  last  season.  I  zvould  like  your  opinion,  as  I  ahvays  thought  that  such 
a  union  zvas  not  possible. 

Our  opinion  is  like  yours,  and  seeing  some  pear  grafts  set  in 
peach  branches  would  not  convince  us  that  they  would  grow  or  bear 
fruit. 

Pigs  in  the  Orchard. 

/  have  an  orchard  of  Bartlett  pears  about  fifteen  years  old,  located 
on   sediment   land.     I   desire    to    set    this    to    alfalfa,    and   to    feed   the 


40  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

alfalfa  by  letting  hogs  eat  it  oif,  thereby  leaving  the  droppings  on  the 
land.  What  I  wish  to  knozv  is  this:  Will  this  crop  be  beneficial  or  in- 
jurious to  the  trees? 

Alfalfa  can  be  successfully  grown  in  an  orchard,  providing  you 
have  irrigation  water  so  that  the  alfalfa  shall  not  rob  the  trees  of 
moisture ;  otherwise  it  is  a  very  dangerous  practice.  The  practice 
of  running  animals  of  any  kind  in  an  orchard  is  to  be  condemned. 
Pigs  are  particularly  liable  to  injure  trees  by  gnawing  the  bark,  and 
we  have  seen  fig  trees  barked  clean  as  high  as  a  pig  could  reach 
by  standing  on  his  hind  legs.  Of  course,  if  you  try  an  experiment 
for  your  own  satisfaction,  you  will  have  to  watch  the  pigs  very 
carefully.  It  is  true  that  growing  pasture  crops  in  an  orchard  and 
grazing  it  off  is  injurious  to  trees,  because  the  land  lacks  proper 
aeration,  and  good  orchard  cultivation  is  even  more  necessary  in 
this  State  than  in  humid  climates.  Therefore,  unless  you  are  sure 
of  a  good  water  supply  for  irrigation,  it  would  be  altogether  safer 
to  give  the  whole  land  to  the  trees  and  keep  them  cultivated  well,  or 
else  dig  out  the  trees  and  use  the  land   for  other  purposes. 

Dwarf  Pears  Not  Commercially  Grown. 

Will  you  kindly  give  the  experience  of  pear  growers  in  California  who 
have  grown  the  dzvarfsf  If  you  can  give  me  the  data  or  refer  me  to 
persons  who  can  give  data  shozving  that  the  growing  of  dzvarf  pears  can 
be  made  a  commercial  success  the  information  zmll  be  of  great  value. 

There  is  no  commercial  growing  of  dwarf  pears  in  this  State, 
except  some  trees  owned  by  the  A.  Block  Company,  Santa  Clara. 
The  late  Mr.  Block  had  an  old  orchard  of  dwarf  trees,  planted  per- 
haps forty  or  fifty  years  ago,  which  he  converted  into  an  approach 
to  a  standard  orchard  by  removing  alternate  rows,  and  the  trees 
being  otherwise  treated  like  standards  have  been  satisfactorily  pro- 
ducing pears  for  many  years.  How  far  these  trees  are  still  on  the 
dwarf  roots  and  how  far  they  have  supplied  themselves  with  roots 
from  the  variety  growth  above,  we  do  not  know.  There  is  no  dis- 
position whatever  to  plant  dwarf  trees  in  this  State  except  among 
a  few  amateurs  who  are  making  home  fruit  gardens.  In  view  of  the 
successful  growth  of  standard  trees  in  this  State,  there  seem  to  be 
no  adequate  reasons  for  recourse  to  dwarf  trees. 

Yield  in   Drying  Pears. 

IVhat  is  the  loss  of  zveight  in  drying  Bartlctt  pears? 

They  run  from  7  to  8  lbs.  of  fresh  pears  to  1  lb.  hard  dried. 
There  is  quite  wide  variation  according  to  condition  of  the  fruit. 
Probably  about  7^  to  1  would  be  as  near  a  realizable  ratio  as  you 
could   get   by  arbitrary  estimate. 

Pear   Problems. 

Kindly  let  me  knozv  the  advisability  of  grafting  Bartlett  pears  onto 
apple  trees.     In  replanting  pears  in  young  orchard,  how  would  it  do   to 


Fruit  Growing  41 

take  rooted  pear  suckers,  graft  the  Bartlctt  on  them,  and  save  the  cost  of 
nursery  stock?  Last  year  my  Hve-ycar-old  Bartlctt  orchard  zvas  full  of 
blossoms,  but,  though  many  pears  became  as  large  as  white  beans,  the 
majority  of  them  dropped. 

The  pear  and  apple  do  not  make  a  good  union.  The  grafts  may 
grow  for  a  while,  but  finally  fail.  Do  not  use  suckers  as  stocks. 
You  can  dig  up  some  year  roots  and  use  them  as  starters  by  making 
root-grafts  with  Bartlett  scions  and  do  better  than  with  suckers, 
but  a  good  pear  seedling  is  the  proper  thing  either  for  budding  or 
root  grafting.  Unless  you  have  some  experience  in  such  work,  it 
will  be  cheaper  in  the  end  to  buy  good  nursery  trees.  The  non- 
bearing  of  your  young  trees  is  probably  due  to  their  youth  and 
vigor. 

Bees  and  Pear  Blight. 

A  fezi.1  years  ago,  I  planted  alfalfa  bctivecn  my  pear  trees  and  the 
trees  bore  a  very  heavy  crop  that  year.  Then  blight  made  its  appearance, 
and  it  zvas  claimed  that  the  bees  carried  the  blight.  I  therefore  plozved 
under  the  alfalfa  and  destroyed  zvhat  fezv  beehives  I  had.  If  the  theory 
that  the  bees  carry  the  blight  from  tree  to  tree  is  not  correct,  I  zt'ill  ex- 
periment zvith  alfalfa  again  this  year. 

It  is  true  that  bees  carry  pear  blight.  It  is  also  true  that  you 
are  not  likely  to  get  many  pears  without  bees  to  pollinate  the  blos- 
soms. You  cannot  escape  the  carriage  of  the  pear  blight  by  re- 
moving tame  bees,  because  wild  bees  are  abundant  in  all  parts  of 
the  State.  The  way  to  overcome  the  blight  is  to  pursue  it  by  ampu- 
tation of  diseased  branches  continually,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
contamination  for  the  bees  to  carry.  You  are  certainly  warranted 
in  continuing  your  alfalfa  growing  without  regard  to  this  question, 
using  water  enough  to  keep  the  alfalfa  growing  well  without  satur- 
ating the  soil  to  the  injury  of  the  trees  or  inducing  too  much  summer 
growth   on  them. 

Forage  Under  Sprayed  Trees. 

Is  it  safe  to  use  arsenical  sprays  in  a  pear  orchard  in  zvhich  alfalfa  is 
raised  betzvecn  the  trees  and  afterzvard  cut  and  fed  to  cattle? 

It  was  fully  demonstrated  by  experiment  about  25  years  ago 
that  herbage  under  trees  sprayed  with  paris  green  at  the  rate  of  1 
pound  to  160  gallons  of  water  was  not  injurious  to  animals  pasturing 
upon  it.  We  are  not  aware  that  such  an  experiinent  has  been  made 
with  the  more  recently  used  arsenates — which  can  be  used  with  a 
much  higher  amount  of  arsenic  to  the  gallon  because  they  do  not 
injure  the  foliage — to  determine  whether  the  herbage  below  would 
be  poisonous  or  not.  Presumably  not,  because  modern  spraying 
does  not  admit  as  much  loss  from  run-off  as  was  the  case  with  old 
spraying   methods. 

Pears   on    Quince. 

/  saw  some  time  ago  a  report  of  some  French  e.vperiments  in  grafting 
the  pear  onto  quince  root.  The  report  said  the  fruit  produced  zcas  much 
larger  than  on  any  other  root. 


42  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Most  of  our  common  pears  will  take  readily  when  grafted  on 
the  quince,  but  the  quince  transforms  them  into  dwarfed  trees. 
Such  trees  do  produce,  with  proper  care,  very  fine  fruit.  The  re- 
mark about  their  being  better  than  on  standard  trees  refers,  how- 
ever, to  other  climates  than  ours,  for  California  grows  just  as  large 
pears  on  standard  trees  as  can  possibly  be  grown,  while  where  con- 
ditions are  harder  the  higher  culture  of  the  dwarf  tree  and  the 
protection  which  it  requires  from  climatic  hardships,  gives  the  dwarf 
tree  the  advantage.  You  can  get  pears  on  quince  roots  from  most 
of  our  California  nurseries. 

Pollination    of   Pears. 

Is  it  necessary  in  grozuiiig  the  Cornice  pear  successfully,  to  put  some 
other  pear  near  for  the  purpose  of  pollination  in  order  to  make  it  suc- 
cessful?    Will  the   ordinary  Bartlett  pear  do   for  pollination? 

The  Com.ice  pear  blooms  with  the  Bartlett,  and  would  there- 
fore presumably  be  of  pollinizing  benefit  to  the  Bartlett  if  the  latter 
should  require  such  treatment.  Common  experience  in  California, 
however,  is  that  the  Bartlett  is  self-fertile  and  not  self-sterile  as  it 
is  commonly  reported  in  Eastern  publications.  California  practice 
is,  then,  to  plant  Bartletts  solidly  without  reference  to  preparation 
for  pollination.  Taking  the  matter  the  other  way  around,  the  Bart- 
lett will  do  for  pollination  of  the  Cornice  probably,  if  that  should 
be   necessary. 

Lye-Peeling   Peaches. 

Please  give  the  for)nula  for  peeling  peaches  by  dipping  them  in  caustic 
soda  or  lye. 

Lye  for  peeling  peaches  is  used  at  the  rate  of  half  to  one  pound 
to  the  gallon  of  water,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  lye,  which 
you  can  determine  by  the  quickness  with  which  it  acts.  The  lye 
water  is  kept  boiling,  and  the  fruit  is  dipped  in  wire  baskets,  only 
being  allowed  to  remain  in  the  lye  a  few  seconds,  and  is  then  plunged 
at  once  into  fresh  water.  You  must  be  careful  to  keep  the  lye 
boiling  hot,  also  either  to  use  running  water  for  rinsing  or  change 
it  very  frequently,  for  you  have  to  rely  on  fresh  water  to  remove 
the   lye,   or   the   fruit   is   likely   to  be   stained. 

Aged  Peach  Trees. 

What  sliould  be  done  zvitli  peach  trees  35  years  old  zvJiicli  are  becoming 
unthrifty,  bearing  only  at  the  ends  of  the  limbs,  etc.? 

Old  peach  trees  become  bark-bound  and  need  to  be  cut  back 
to  Just  above  the  crotch  for  the  forcing  out  of  new  branches,  this 
being  facilitated,  of  course,  by  application  of  manure,  good  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  use  of  water  during  the  dry  season,  etc.  The  peach 
is,  under  most  conditions,  not  a  long-lived  tree,  and  if  your  trees 
are  35  years  of  age,  it  is  probable  that  best  results  could  be  obtained 
by  grubbing  them  out  and  replanting  with  young  trees   on   new   soil 


Fruit  Growino  •  43 

if  possible.  The  profitable  life  of  the  Eastern  peach  tree  is  put 
down  at  five  or  six  years.  In  California  the  profitable  life  of  the 
peach  sometimes  reaches  twenty  or  more  years,  if  growing  under 
exceptionally  good  conditions;  but  35  years  would  seem  to  be  at 
least  on  the  borders  of  decrepitude.  Growing  at  the  tips  shows 
that  you  have  not  pruned  annually  to  induce  the  growth  of  new 
wood  lower  down. 

Renewing  Peach   Orchard. 

IVhicli  is  tlie  best  zuay  to  rcnciv  an  old  peach  orchard?  The  trees  arc 
about  i8  years  old,  Miiirs  and  Fosters,  and  are  yielding  good  crops,  but 
some  of  the  trees  shozv  decline.  Is  it  best  to  replace  the  old  ones  zvith 
nezu  trees  or  to  plant  a  nezv  orchard  in  betzvcen  the  old  trees  and  cut  out 
old  ones  zvhen  nezv  trees  are  three  or  four  years  old? 

If  the  trees  have  sound  bodies  and  are  not  badly  injured  by  sun- 
burn borers,  do  none  of  the  things  you  mention,  but  would  cut  back 
for  a  new  head.  Cutting  back  should  be  done  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  dormant  period  and  thinning  of  shoots  to  proper  balance 
a  new  head  should  be  carefully  done  the  following  winter.  It  is  a 
hard  job  to  get  j^oung  trees  to  start  among  old  trees  and  you  are 
apt  to  get  a  mixed  lot  of  trees  which  you  will  not  be  proud  of. 
Cut  back  as  suggested  or  rip  out,  plow  deeply  and  start  anew,  placing 
the  rows  midway  between  the  old  rows. 

Win  He  Have  Peaches? 

/  have  a  young  orchard  betzvcen  five  and  six  years  old,  mostly  of  the 
Lovell  variety.  I  didn't  have  much  of  a  crop  this  year.  Should  I  have  a 
good  crop  next  year? 

You  ought  to  be  able  to  tell  now  how  full  a  set  of  fruit  buds  you 
have.  If  you  do  not  know  what  the  fruit  buds  are,  ask  some  neigh- 
bor who  knows  peaches  to  point  them  out.  If  you  have  a  good  show  of 
fruit  buds,  the  question  in  California  is  not  whether  they  will  winter- 
kill or  not,  but  whether  the  leaves  held  late  enough  the  preceding 
summer  and  therefore  the  tree  had  strength  enough  to  make  good 
strong  fruit  buds.  The  late  action  of  the  leaves  shows  that  the 
trees  had  enough  autumn  moisture.  You  will  soon  learn  to  recog- 
nize the  condition  also  from  the  plumpness  of  the  wood  which  carries 
the  fruit  buds.  If  all  has  gone  well  so  far,  the  next  point  is  to 
spray  with  the  bordeaux  mixture  in  November  or  December  so  that 
the  new  wood  shall  not  be  attacked  by  the  peach  blight  or  shot- 
hole  fungus.  This  disease  comes  on  early  in  the  winter,  sets  the 
the  new  bark  to  gumming  and  endangers  the  crop.  Then  if  you 
have  San  Jose  scale,  or  if  your  trees  showed  much  curl-leaf  last 
spring,  you  ought  to  spray  before  the  blossom  buds  show  color  with 
the  lime-sulphur  wash.  Supposing  that  you  have  good  buds  now 
and  are  willing  to  protect  them  as  suggested,  your  trees  may  be 
expected  to  come  through  with  a  good  crop  if  seasonal  moisture 
conditions   are   right. 


44  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Peach  Fillers  in  Apple   Orchard. 

/  have  heard  some  talk  against  planting  peach  fillers  in  an  apple 
orchard.     What  is  your  opinion  on  the  subject^ 

There  is  no  objection  providing  the  peach  is  profitable  in  the 
locaHty;  and  that  point  you  must  look  into.  The  peach  trees  will 
not  injure  the  apples  unless  they  are  allowed  to  stand  too  long. 
In  that  case  they  would  interfere  with  the  development  of  the  apple. 

Grafting  Peach  on  Almond. 

May  I  expect  to  get  good  results  by  grafting  some  kind  of  peach 
to  ig-ycar-old  almond  tree?  If  so,  xvhat  kind  of  peach  will  be  best? 
When  shall  I  do  grafting;' 

Peaches  take  to  the  almond  all  right.  Cut  off  and  graft  in  the 
branches  above  the  main  forking  of  the  tree;  leaving  at  least  one 
large  branch  to  be  grafted  later  or  to  be  cut  out  entirely  if  you 
have  peach  growth  enough  to  fill  the  top  sufficiently.  Graft  in  any 
kind  of  peach  you  find  to  be  worth  growing.  Graft  toward  the  latter 
part  of  the  dormant  season,  say  when  the  buds  are  swelling  for  a 
new  start. 

Peaches  on  Apricot. 

/  have  a  three-year-old  peach  orchard  grafted  or  budded  on  apricot 
roots,  and  interspersed  through  the  orchard  are  young  apricot  trees, 
from  half-inch  to  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  zvhich  sprang  from  the 
root,  the  peach  bud  or  graft  having  died.  I  budded  these  over  to  peaches 
in  summer,  but  the  buds  all  died  for  some  cause.  What  is  nozv  the 
best  course  to  transform  them  into  peach  trees?  If  a  graft,  what  form 
of  graft,  and  approximately  vohen  should  it  be  made? 

You  can  graft  peach  scions  into  the  apricot  sprouts  by  taking 
the  peach  scions  of  the  varieties  you  desire  while  the  tree  is  per- 
fectly dormant,  keeping  them  in  a  cool  place  and  putting  in  the 
grafts  just  as  the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell  on  the  apricot  stock. 
The  scions  can  be  buried  in  the  earth  in  the  shade  of  a  fence  or 
building,  selecting  a  place,  however,  which  is  moist  enough  and  yet 
where  the  water  does  not  gather.  The  ordinary  form  of  top  grafting 
in  stems  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  will  work  well.  The  half-inch 
stems  can  be  whip-grafted  successfully.  You  will  have  to  wax  well 
and  see  that  the  wax  coating  is  kept  sound  until  the  growth  starts. 

Replanting  After  Root-knots. 

In  digging  out  some  old  peach  trees,  I  find  now  and  then  a  tree 
affected  with  root  knot.  I  am  burning  the  root,  of  course,  but  as  these 
trees  are  scattered  in  the  orchard,  I  tvish  to  plant  young  trees  in  same 
locations,  thus  preserving  the  rotvs.  Can  new  stock  be  safely  put  in  the 
earth  from  zvhich  the  old  tree  is  removed?  If  treatment  of  the  soil  is 
essential,  zvhat  is  recommended? 

Dig  a  good  large  hole,  removing  the  earth,  and  fill  with  new  earth 
from  between  the  rows,  and  in  this  way  healthy  growth  ought  to  be 


Fruit  Growing  45 

obtained,  although  there  is  alwaj's  a  disposition  in  some  trees  to  put 
on  knots.  They  should  be  looked  at  from  time  to  time  and  all  those 
affecting  the  larger  stem  should  be  removed  and  the  wound  painted 
with  bordeaux  mixture. 

Buds  in  Bearing  Trees. 

In  budding  over  sonic  old  f^cacli  trees,  should  I  cut  azmy  the  branch 
above  the  bud  zvhcn  tlic  hitter  seems  to  have  taken? 

The  sap  flow  to  the  upper  part  of  the  branch  should  be  checked 
by  part  girdling  or  by  part  breaking  or  bending  the  top  above  the 
bud,  after  the  bud  is  seen  to  have  set  or  taken.  Do  not  remove  the 
whole  top  until  the  growth  on  the  bud  has  started  out  well  or  else 
you   will   "drown   it"   with   excessive   sap   flow. 

Pollen    Must   Be   of   the    Same   Kind. 

Do  peaches,  nectarines  and  apricots  set  fruit  zvith  the  pollen  of 
one  another,  and  are  the  various  peaches,  nectarines  and  apricots  self- 
sterile,  or  will  most  kinds  set  fruit  zinth  their  own  pollen? 

We  do  not  count  upon  pollination  between  different  kinds  of 
fruit.  Most  fruits  are  self-fertile,  else  we  could  not  attain  the, 
practical  results  we  do,  because  it  is  only  in  the  planting  of  almonds, 
cherries,  pears  and  apples  that  any  regard  is  paid  to  the  association 
of  varieties  for  that  cross-fertilization.  Some  fruits  are  more  apt 
to  be  self-fertile  in  this  State  than  in  other  States  where  the  grow- 
ing  conditions   are   not   so   favorable. 

Peach   Budding. 

Which  is  easier  zvith  the  peach,  grafting  or  budding? 

The  peach  is  rather  a  difficult  tree  to  graft,  and  budding,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  quite  easy.  You  can  bud  into  new  shoots  of  this 
season's  growth  in  July,  and,  if  necessary,  you  can  improve  the 
slipping  of  the  bark  by  irrigation  a  few  days  before  budding.  Buds 
can  also  be  successfully  placed  in  June  in  the  old  bark  of  the  peach, 
providing  it  is  not  too  old.  For  this  select  well-matured  buds  from 
the  larger  shoots  and  use  rather  a  larger  shield  than  in  working 
into  new  shoots.  When  the  buds  are  seen  to  have  taken,  the  top  growth 
beyond  it  can  be  reduced  gradually  and  some  new  growth  forced  on  the 
buds  the  same  season,  if  the  sap  flow  continues  as  it  might  be  expected 
to   do  on  young  trees   well  cared   for. 

Grafting  on  the  Peach. 

Will  pears  do  to  graft  on  the  peach,  or  will  plums  do  zuell  on  the 
peach?  Hozv  soon  ought  they  to  bear  when  grafted  on  the  peach  which 
is  past  three  years  old? 

Pears  cannot  be  grafted  on  peaches.  Plums  generally  do  well 
on  the  peach,  and  if  the  grafts  are  taken  from  bearing  trees,  should 
come   into   fruit   the   second   season.     The   peach   is   more   difficult    to 


46  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

graft  than  other  fruit  trees,  because  of  the  drying  back  of  the  bark. 
Be  extra  careful  in  the  waxing  and  be  sure  that  the  waxing  remains 
good  until  the  growth  starts  out  well  the  following  summer. 

Young  Trees  Failing  to  Start. 

Sotne  peach  and  almond  trees  set  out  last  spring  lived,  but  made  no 
growth.  Should  they  be  replaced  with  new  stock?  If  not,  ivhat  may 
be  expected  of  them? 

If  your  inactive  trees  have  good  plump  dormant  buds  (though 
they  may  not  be  large  buds),  they  may  make  good  growth  the 
coming  summer,  if  the  land  is  good  and  the  moisture  right  for  free 
growth. 

Peach  Planting  in  Alfalfa  Sod. 

Is  it  advisable  to  plant  canning  peaches  in  April,  and  ivill  I  gain 
time  in  growth  and  development?  I  want  to  set  out  eight  acres  in 
Tuscans  or  Phillips  on  deep  rich  soil  near  Yuba  City.  I  have  a  pumping 
plant  and  can  irrigate.  The  land  has  been  in  alfalfa  for  several  years. 
I  have  in  mind  setting,  out  trees  without  disturbing  the  alfalfa — until 
next  plowing  season.  Do  you  think  it  advisable  to  use  commercial  fer- 
tiliser on   ten-year-old  Muirsf 

Planting  the  best  canning  peaches  on  good  peach  soil  near  Yuba 
City  seems  to  be  about  the  safest  line  of  fruit  investment  which  can 
be  undertaken.  We  doubt  that  you  can  get  much  growth  from  trees 
planted  in  an  old  stand  of  alfalfa  without  some  effort  to  kill  out 
the  plant  which  now  occupies  the  ground.  Still,  by  deep  digging, 
throwing  out  all  the  alfalfa  roots  and  thorough  hoeing  during  the 
growing  season  and  keeping  the  alfalfa  mowers  from  sawing  off  the 
tops  of  them,  the  trees  may  make  a  good  start.  As  the  alfalfa  will 
have  to  be  irrigated,  April  may  not  be  too  late  to  start  the  trees, 
providing  you  can  find  nursery  stock  which  is  still  quite  dormant. 
Probably  ten-year-old  peach  trees  will  be  very  much  improved  by 
commercial    fertilizers. 

Prune   on   Almond. 

What  root  is  considered  best  for  prune  trees?  The  ranch  lies  above 
the  creek.  A  friend  is  very  partial  to  the  almond  root  instead  of  the 
myrobalan,  but  I  understand  that  the  prune  tree  sometimes  outgrows 
the  almond  root. 

If  you  have  a  deep  rather  light  soil  which  drains  well  and  which 
there  is,  therefore,  no  danger  of  water  standing  during  the  rainy 
season,  the  almond  root  is  perfectly  satisfactory  for  the  prune.  It 
is  a  strong-growing  root  and  keeps  pace  with  the  top  growth  well. 
The  prune,  in  fact,  is  more  apt  to  overgrow  the  myrobalan  than  the 
almond,  and  the  myrobalan  will  not  do  well  on  light  soils  likely  to 
dry  out  as  the  almond  will. 

Re-grafting   Silver   Prunes. 

I  have  Hve  acres  of  Silver  prunes  which  produce  very  little  fruit. 
The   trees  are  strong   and  healthy.     French   prune   trees  adjoining   bear 


Fruit  Growing  47 

regularly  and  heavily.     Can  I  graft  French  primes  on  the  Silver  freest 
Will  Silver  prune  trees  take  other  grafts,  such  as  apricots  or  apples? 

The  Silver  prune  is  often  unsatisfactory  for  reason  of  shy  bear- 
ing. It  is  perfectly  feasible  to  graft  over  the  tree  to  the  French 
prune  and  this  has  been  done  for  years  by  different  growers.  Apri- 
cots will  usually  take  on  the  plum  stock,  but  are  apt  to  over-grow 
it  or  else  be  dwarfed  themselves,  but  the  apricot  is  often  worked 
upon  a  plum  stock.  Apples  have  no  grafting  af^nity  whatever  for 
the   plum. 

French   or   Italian. 

In  the  prune -groiving  district  around  Salem,  Oregon,  Italian  prunes 
are  grown  exclusively  for  drying  purposes.  French  prunes  were  con- 
sidered ivorthless.  Here  in  Sutter  county,  California,  a  great  many  French 
prunes  are  groxvn  and  we  are  advised  to  plant  them,  but  would  rather 
plant  the  Italian  prune.  Wliich  ivould  you  advise  us  to  set  out  in  this 
part  of  the  State? 

The  Italian  or  Fellenberg  prune  was  grown  to  some  extent  in 
California  40  years  and  abandoned;  it  was  not  so  sure  in  bearing 
as  the  French,  and  it  was  not  the  type  of  prune  which  we  had 
ambition  to  excel  with.  The  prune  which  we  grow  as  the  French 
is  the  true  prune  or  plum  of  Agen.  We  should  plant  it  and  let  the 
Oregon   people   have   the    Italian. 

Myrobalan  Seedlings. 

/  am  sending  tivo  small  plums  which  I  am  told  are  Myrobalan  plum. 
I  desire  to  grow  seedlings  on  which  later  to  bud  and  graft  French  prunes. 
If  these  are  Myrobalan  plums,  will  trees  from  them  be  as  good  as  trees 
from  pits  that  were  imported? 

The  fruits  are  Myrobalan  plums,  and  their  seedlings  would  be 
suitable  for  the  French  prune,  providing  the  trees  which  bear  them 
are  strong,  thrifty  growing  trees.  There  is  great  variation  in  the 
colors  of  the  Myrobalan  seedlings,  from  light  yellow  to  dark  red, 
and  it  is  the  satisfactory  grovv'th  of  the  tree  rather  than  the  char- 
acter of  the  fruit  which  one  has  to  bear  in  mind  when  growing 
seedlings  from  selected  trees  instead  of  depending  so  largely  on 
imported   seedlings. 

Drying  Plums  and  Prunes. 

/  have  plum  trees  of  various  kinds  that  are  loaded  with  fruit.  I  do 
not  know  if  any  are  of  the  variety  used  for  drying  as  prunes:  I  knoiv 
nothing  of  the  process  of  making  or  drying  prunes.  One  man  suggests 
that  I  dip  them  for  four  or  five  minutes  in  a  3  or  4  per  cent  solution 
of  lye  and  then  place  them  in  the  sun. 

Dipping  your  plums  is  right  providing  they  are  very  sweet,  as 
they  will  dry  like  prunes  without  removing  the  pit.  If  they  are 
plums  that  are  commercially  used  for  shipping,  without  enough 
sugar  to  dry  as  prunes,  the  pit  must  be  removed.  Drying  in  this 
way,   you   do   not   need    to    use   lye,    which    is    simply    for  the  purpose 


48  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

of  cracking  the  skin  so  that  the  moisture  can  be  more  readily 
evaporated.  There  is  no  danger  in  using  the  necessary  amount  of 
lye.      Less   is  used   than   in  making   hominy. 

The  Sugar   Prune. 

JVIuit  is  the  commercial  value  of  the  Sugar  prune?  Is  there  any 
other  early  ripening  variety  better  than  the  Sugar? 

It  is  selling  very  well  as  a  cured  prune,  and  growers  in  the 
northern  bay  counties  especially  have  done  so  well  that  they  are 
extending  their  plantings.  It  is  coarser  in  flesh  than  the  French 
and  generally  flatter  in  flavor  when  cooked  and  thus  falls  below  the  ideal 
of  a  cured  prune,  but  it  has  compensating  characters,  such  as  early 
ripening,  with  which  no  other  prune  compares.  The  Sugar  is  also 
valuable  as  a  shipping  plum  to  Eastern  markets. 

Glossing  Dried  Prunes. 

JVill  you  give  the  method  for  giving  the  gloss  to  dried  French  prunes? 

There  are  various  methods.  One  pound  of  glycerine  to  20 
gallons  of  water;  a  quick  dip  in  the  mixture  very  hot  gives  a  good 
finish.  Where  a  clear  bloom  rather  than  a  shine,  is  desired,  five 
pounds  of  common  salt  to  100  gallons  of  water,  also  dipped  hot, 
gives  a  good  effect.  Some  use  a  thin  syrup  made  by  boiling  small  prunes 
in  water  (by  stove  or  steam)  and  thinning  with  water  to  produce 
the  result  desired.  Steam  cooking  avoids .  bad  flavor  by  burning. 
The  salt  dip  is  probably  the  most  widely  used. 

Price  of  Prunes  on  a  Size  Basis. 

Explain  the  grading  in  price  of  prunes.  For  instance,  if  the  base 
price  is,  say,  five  and  three-fourths  cents,  zvhat  size  does  this  refer  to, 
and  hoiv  is  the  price  for  other  sizes  calculated?  Also,  zvhat  is  the  mean- 
ing of  the  phrase  "four-size  basis"? 

Prunes,  after  being  sold  to  the  packer,  are  graded  into  different 
sizes,  according  to  the  number  required  to  make  a  pound,  and  paid 
for  on  that  basis.  The  four  regular  sizes  are  60-70s,  70-80s,  80-90s, 
and  90-lOOs,  which  means  that  from  60  to  70  prunes  are  required  to 
make  a  pound,  and  so  on.  The  basis  price  is  for  prunes  that  weigh 
80  to  the  pound.  When  the  basis  price  is  5^  cents,  80-90s  are  worth 
54  cent  less  than  this  amount,  or  5^  cents.  The  next  smaller  size, 
90-lOOs,  are  worth  3^  cent  less,  or  5  cents,  while  prunes  under  this 
size  are  little  but  skin  and  pit  and  bring  much  less  to  the  grower. 
For  each  next  larger  size  there  is  a  difference  of  ^  cent  in  favor 
of  the  grower,  so  that  on  the  S^-cent  basis  70-80s  are  worth  6 
cents,  and  60-70s  6^  cents.  This  advance  continues  for  the  larger 
sizes,  30-40s,  40- 50s,  etc.,  but  these  quite  often  command  a  premium 
besides,  which  is  fixed  according  to  the  supplies  available  and  the 
demand  for  the  various  sizes.  The  sizes  for  which  no  premium  or 
penalty   is   generally   fixed   are    those    from    60    to    100,     four   sizes,    so 


Fruit  Growing  49 

that  this  basis  of  making  contracts  and  sales  is  called  the  "four- 
size  basis."  The  advantage  that  results  in  having  this  method  of 
selling  prunes  can  be  seen  by  the  fact  that  on  a  5->:4-cent  basis  the 
smallest  of  the  four  sizes  will  bring  but  5  cents  a  pound,  while  30-40s 
would  bring,  without  any  premium,  8>i  cents,  and  with  1  cent 
premium,  9^  cents.  This  size  has  this  season  brought  as  high  as 
10  and  11  cents  a  pound.  It  may  be  noted  here  that  no  prunes  are 
actually  sold  at  just  the  basis  price,  as  they  are  worth  either  less  or  more 
than  this  as  they  are  smaller  or  larger  than  80  to  the  pound.  No 
matter  what  the  basis  price  is,  there  is  a  difference  of  one-half  cent 
between   each   size  and   the   sizes  nearest   to   it. 

Pollinizing  Plums. 

Hozv  many  rows  of  Robe  dc  Sergeant  prune  trees  shotild  be  alter- 
nated with  the  French  prune  (the  common  dried  prune  of  commerce)  to 
insure  perfect  fertilization  of  the  blossoms? 

The  French  prune  is  self-fertile;  that  is,  it  does  not  require  the 
presence  of  other  plum  species  for  pollination  of  the  blossoms.  It 
is  the  Robe  de  Sergeant  prune  which  is  defective  in  pollination 
and  which  is  presumably  assisted  by  proximity  to  the  French  prune. 
If  you  wish  to  grow  Robe  de  Sergeant  prunes  your  question  of  in- 
terplanting  would  be  pertinent,  but  if  you  desire  only  to  grow  French 
prunes  you  need  not  plant  the  Robe  de  Sergeant  at  all. 

Cultivating  Olives. 

How  deep  should  an  olive  orchard  be  plowed?  I  zvas  told  that  by 
plowing  deep  I  would  injure  my  trees,  in  cutting  up  small  rootlets  and 
fibres  wliich  the  olive  extends  through  the  surface  soil.  Is  tliis  so  or 
not? 

Plowing  olives  is  like  plowing  other  trees,  the  purpose  being 
to  get  a  workable  soil  deep  enough  to  stand  five  or  six  inches  of 
summer  cultivation,  usually.  If  you  have  old  trees  which  have  never 
been  deeply  plowed,  you  would  destroy  a  lot  of  roots  by  deep  plow- 
ing, and  you  should  not  start  in  and  rip  up  all  the  land  at  once. 
You  can  gradually  deepen  the  plowing,  sacrificing  fewer  roots  at  a 
time,  without  injuring  the  trees  if  they  are  otherwise  well  circum- 
stanced. Small  rootlets  and  fibres  in  the  surface  soil  do  not  count; 
they  are  quickly  replaced,  and  if  you  do  not  destroy  them,  the  whole 
surface  soil,  if  moist  enough,  will  be  filled  with  a  network  of  roots 
which  will  subsequently  make  decent  working  of  the  soil  impossible. 

Moving   Old    Olive   Trees. 

Would  there  be  anything  gained  by  transplanting  old  olive  trees  6  to 
8  inches  in  diameter  over  nursery  stock?  They  would  have  to  be  shipped 
from  Santa  Clara  to  Butte  county  and  grafted.  Would  they  come  into 
bearing  any  sooner  and  be  as  good  trees?  Could  the  large  limbs  be 
used  to  advantage?  Would  the  fact  that  they  are  covered  tvith  smut 
cause  any  trouble? 


50  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Old  olive  trees  can  be  successfully  moved  a  long  distance  by 
cutting  back,  taking  up  a  ball  of  earth,  and  possibly  a  short  distance 
v^ith  bare  roots  if  everything  is  favorable.  But  do  not  for  a  moment 
think  Ihcm  worth  such  an  outlay  for  labor,  freight  and  hauling  which 
such  a  movement  as  you  mention  involves.  The  trees  on  arrival 
would  probably  only  be  firewood,  and  if  they  lived,  the  time  required 
in  getting  a  good  growth  and  grafting,  etc.,  would  perhaps  be  as 
great  as  in  bringing  a  young  tree  of  the  right  kind  to  bearing,  and 
the  latter  would  be  a  better  tree  in  every  way.  Large  limbs  can  be 
split  and  used  as  cuttings,  but  the  tree  would  be  growth  on  one  side 
and  decay  on  the  other.  Use  the  smaller  limbs  for  hard-wood  cut- 
tings and  the  balance  for  firewood.  The  smut  shows  that  the  trees 
are  covered  with  scale  insects  and  might  indicate  that  it  is  better 
to   burn   up   the   whole   outfit   unless   you   learn   to   fight   them. 

Darkening  Pickled   Olives. 

Is  there  anything  that  zvill  make  olives  keep  their  black  color  when 
put  into  lye?  When  I  put  my  first  picking  of  ripe  olives  in  lye,  a  large 
part  of  them  turn  green,  the  black  leaving  the  fruit.  My  formula  is  one 
pound  of  lye  to  Ave  gallons  of  zvater.     Have  you  any  better  formula? 

By  exposing  the  olives  to  the  light  and  air,  either  during  the 
salting  or  immediately  after,  ripe  olives  may  be  given  a  uniformly 
black  color.  Also,  fruit  which  is  less  ripe  and  which  shows  red  and 
green  patches  after  processing  with  lye,  becomes  an  almost  uniform 
dark  brown  color.  To  do  this,  the  olives  are  removed  from  the 
brine  and  exposed  to  light  and  air  freely  for  one  or  two  days.  Your 
lye  was  stronger  than  necessary.  With  ripe  olives  it  is  desirable  to 
use  salt  and  lye  together  to  prevent  softening,  and  the  common 
prescription  is  two  ounces  of  potash  lye  and  four  ounces  of  salt  to 
the  gallon  of  water  after  the  bitterness  is  largely  removed  by  using 
one  or  two  treatments  with  two  ounces  of  lye  to  the  gallon  without 
the  salt.  It  is  necessary  to  draw  off  the  solution,  rinse  well,  and 
put  on  fresh  solution  several  times  during  the  process  to  get  the  best 
results. 

Seedling  Olives  Must  Be  Grafted. 

Will  olive  trees  grown  from  the  olive  seed  he  the  right  thing  to 
plant?  Will  they  he  true  to  the  parent  tree  or  will  they  have  to  be 
grafted? 

Olives  which  a  seedling  olive  tree  will  bear  will  be,  as  a  rule, 
very  inferior  and  generally  of  the  type  of  the  wild  olive.  All  such 
trees  must  be  grafted  in  order  to  produce  any  particular  variety 
which  you  desire. 

Olives,  Oranges  and  Peppers. 

We  have  been  told  that  olive  trees  easily  become  infested  with  a 
fungus  disease  which  they  then  impart  to  the  orange  tree.  The  same 
objection  is  raised  to  the  planting  of  pepper  trees.  May  this  be  true 
in  some  parts  of  the  State  and  not  in  others? 


Fruit  Growing  51 

The  fungus  of  which  you  have  heard  is  the  "black  smut."  It  is 
a  result,  not  a  cause.  It  grows  on  the  honey  dew  exuded  from  scale 
insects  and  if  your  trees  have  no  scale  they  have  no  fungus.  The 
olive  trees  and  pepper  trees  may  communicate  this  trouble  to  citrus 
trees,  or  vice  versa — whichever  gets  it  first  gives  it  away  to  the 
other.  If  you  will  work  hard  enough  to  kill  the  scale  wherever 
it  appears  j-ou  can  have  all  these  trees,  but,  of  course,  it  costs  a  lot 
to  fight  scale  on  big  pepper  trees,  and  it  is,  therefore,  wisest  usually 
to  choose  an  ornamental  tree  not  likely  to  accept  the  scale. 

Budding  Olive  Seedlings. 

/  have  planted  olive  seeds  zvhich  are  just  sprouting  now.  Can  these  be 
budded  next  June  or  July  in  the  nurscsry  rozi.',  or  can  they  be  bench-grafted 
the  following  ivinter? 

Your  seedlings  may  make  growth  enough  to  spur-bud  this  sum- 
mer. The  ordinary  plate-bud  does  not  take  freely  with  the  olive. 
Some  of  them  may  do  this;  other  seedlings  may  be  slow  and  have 
to  be  budded  in  the  second  summer.  Watch  the  size  and  the  sap 
flow  so  that  the  bark  will  lift  well — which  may  not  be  at  just  the 
time  that  deciduous  trees  are  budded.  It  may  be  both  earlier  or 
later  in  the  season.  Graft  evergreens  like  the  olive  in  the  nursery 
row;   not  by  bench   grafting. 

Budding  Old  Olives. 

/  have  seedling  olive  trees,  set  out  in  1904,  which  I  wish  to  change 
over  to  the  Ascolano  variety.  Which  is  the  best  zvay  to  do  it,  by  budding 
or  grafting,  and  what  is   the  proper  time? 

Twig-budding  brings  the  sap  of  the  stock  to  bear  upon  a  young 
lateral  or  tip  bud,  which  is  much  easier  to  start  than  dormant  buds 
used  either  as  buds  or  grafts.  A  short  twig  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  length  is  taken  with  some  of  the  bark  of  the  small  branch 
from  which  it  starts,  and  both  twig  and  bark  at  its  base  are  put  in 
a  bark  slit  like  an  ordinary  shield  bud  and  tied  closely  with  a  waxed 
band,  although  if  the  sap  is  moving  freely  it  would  probably  do 
with  a  string  or  raffia  tie.  Put  in  such  buds  as  growth  is  starting 
in  the  spring. 

Olives   from   Small   Cuttings. 

In  the  rooting  of  small  soft-wood  olive  cuttings  is  it  necessary  to 
cover  same  with  glass — say  perhaps  prepare  a  cold-frame  and  put  stable 
manure  in  the  bottom  with  about  eight  inches  of  sand  on  top? 

It  ceases  to  be  a  cold-frame  when  you  cover  in  manure  for 
bottom  heat;  it  becomes  a  hotbed.  Varieties  of  olives  differ  greatly 
in  the  readiness  with  which  they  start  from  small  cuttings.  Some 
start  freely  and  grow  well  in  boxes  of  sand  under  partial  shade — like 
a  lath  house  or  cover.  Some  need  bottom  heat  in  such  a  hotbed  as 
you  describe  with  a  cloth  over;  some  start  well  in  a  cold-frame  with 
a  lath  cover.     To  get  the  best  results  with  all  kinds,  it  is  safer  to  use 


52  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

some  more  heat  than  comes  from  exposure  to  ordinary  temperatvires 
— either  by  concentration,  as  in  a  covered  frame,  or  by  a  mild  bottom 
heat.  If  you  have  glass  frames  or  greenhouse,  they  are,  of  course, 
desirable,   but   much   can   be   done   without   that   expense. 

Olives  from  Large  Cuttings. 

/  am  about  to  take  olive  cuttings  from  one-half  to  one  inch  thick 
and  14  to  20  inches  long,  and  zvish  to  root  them  in  nursery  rozvs.  Please 
advise  me  if  it  is  necessary  to  plant  under  half  shade?  Also,  can  same 
be  planted  out  right  azvay,  or  should  they  be  buried  in  trenches  for  a 
while  before  setting  outf  Would  it  he  best  to  strip  all  leaves  or  branches 
off,  or  leave  one  on?   Hozv  many  buds  should  be  left  above  ground? 

Plant  in  open  ground  in  the  coast  district  generally;  in  the  in- 
terior a  lath  (or  litter  shade  not  too  dense)  is  desirable  in  places 
where  high  dry  heat  is  expected  and  where  sprinkling  under  the 
cover  may  be  desirable.  Plant  out  when  the  soil  is  right  as  to 
warmth  and  moisture,  which  is  usually  a  little  later  than  this  in  the 
central  and  northern  parts  of  the  State.  Remove  all  leaves  and 
twigs  and  plant  about  three-quarters  of  the  length  in  the  soil,  which 
should  be  a  well-drained  sandy  loam.  The  cuttings  can  be  taken 
directly  from  the  trees  and  need  not  be  bedded.  If  the  cuttings 
come  some  distance  and  get  end-dried,  make  a  fresh  cut  at  planting. 
If  shriveled  at  all,  soak  a  few  hours  in  water  before  planting  out. 

Trimming  Up  Olives. 

Limbs  are  shooting  out  too  lozv  on  my  olive  trees.  Would  it  be  right 
to  trim  them  up  zvhilc  dormant  this  zvinter,  or  should  I  let  them  grozv 
another  year  before  doing  so?  I  think  I  zvant  the  first  limbs  to  start  at 
18  to  20  inches  above  the  ground. 

Take  ofif  the  lower  shoots  whenever  your  knife  is  sharp.  Do  not 
let  them  grow  another  year.  Theoretically,  the  best  time  to  remove 
them  is  toward  the  end  of  the  dormant  season,  but  if  they  are  not 
large  as  compared  with  the  whole  growth  of  the  tree,  go  to  it  any  time. 

Canning   Olives. 

What  is  the  recipe  for  preserving  olives  by  heat,  and  hozv  long  do 
they  have  to  remain  in  the  heated  state? 

Canning  olives  is  a  process,  not  a  recipe,  and  it  has  to  be 
operated  with  judgment.  It  resembles,  of  course,  the  common  pro- 
cess of  canning  other  fruits  and  vegetables.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
that  heating  up  to  175°  Fahrenheit  is  effective  to  keep  olives  in 
sealed  containers  for  over  two  years.  The  heating  was  done  in  the 
jars  in  the  usual  canning  way  for  several  minutes  after  175°  was 
reached,  to  be  sure  the  contents  were  heated  through. 

Renewing   Olive  Trees. 

I  have  olive  trees  on  first-class  land;  no  pest  of  any  kind  is  apparent. 
The  trees  look  healthy  in  every  zvay,  and  average  about  12  inches  at  the 


Fruit  Growing  53 

butt  and  so  feet  higli.  They  have  borne  fntit,  but  for  the  last  three  years 
have  not  borjie.  I  am  advised  to  cut  back  to  stunif^s,  5  or  6  feet  high, 
and  start  nezv  tops. 

Unsatisfactory  olive  trees  may  be  cut  back,  l)Ut  not  to  such  an 
extent  as  you  mention.  Thin  out  the  branches  if  too  thick  and  cut 
back  or  remove  those  which  interfere,  but  to  cut  back  to  a  stump 
would  force  out  a  very  thick  mass  of  brush  whicli  you  would  have  to 
afterward  go  into  and  thin  out  desperately.  The  branches  which 
you  decide  to  retain  may  be  cut  back  to  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  from 
the  ground.  This  would  have  the  efifect  of  giving  you  plenty  of 
new  thrifty  wood,  which  is  desirable  for  the  fruiting  of  the  olive, 
but  we  cannot  guarantee  that  this  treatment  will  make  the  trees 
satisfactory  bearers.  Are  you  sure  they  are  receiving  water  enough? 
If  not,  give  them  more  next  summer.  Also  give  the  land  a  good 
coat  of  stable  manure  and  plow  under  when  the  land  is  right  for  the 
plow. 

Growing  Olives  from  Seed. 

How  are  seedlings  grozvn  from  olive  seeds? 

Growing  olives  from  seeds  is  promoted  by  assisting  nature  to 
break  the  hard  shell.  This  can  be  done  by  pinching  carefully  with 
ordinary  wire  pliers  until  the  shell  cracks  without  injury  to  the 
kernel,  or  the  shell  may  be  cut  into  with  a  file,  making  a  very  small 
aperture  to  admit  moisture.  The  French  have  specially  contrived 
pliers  with  a  stop  which  admits  cracking  and  prevents  crushing. 
Olive  seeds  in  their  natural  condition  germinate  slowly  and  irregu- 
larly. They  must  be  kept  moist  and  planted  about  an  inch  deep  in 
sandy  loam,  covering  with  chaiT  or  litter  to  prevent  drying  of  the 
surface.  Before  experimenting  with  olive  pits,  crack  a  few  to  see 
if  they  have  good  plump  kernels.  Seedling  olives  must  be  grafted,  of 
course,  to  be  sure  of  getting  the  variety  you  want.  For  this  reason 
growth   from   cuttings  is  almost  universal. 

Neglected  Olive  Trees. 

/  have  a  lot  of  olive  trees  which  have  groxim  up  around  the  old 
stumps.  They  are  large  trees  and  some  of  them  have  six  or  eight  trunks. 
Should  I  cut  away  all  but  one  trunk  or  let  them  alone?  There  are  some 
of  the  trees  with  small  olives;  others  none. 

If  the  olive  trees  which  were  originallj'  planted  were  trained  at 
first  and  still  have  a  good  trunk  and  tree  form,  the  suckers  which 
have  intruded  from  below  should  be  removed.  If,  however,  the  trees 
have  been  allowed  to  grow  many  branches  from  below,  so  that  there 
is  really  no  single  tree  remaining,  make  a  selection  of  four  or  five 
of  the  best  shoots  and  grow  the  trees  in  large  bush  form,  shortening 
in  the  higher  growth  so  as  to  bring  the  fruit  within  easier  reach 
and  reduce  the  cost  of  picking.  You  can  also  develop  a  single  shoot 
into  a  tree  as  you  suggest.  Of  course,  you  must  determine  whether 
the  trees  as  they  now  stand  are  of  a  variety  which  is  worth  grow- 
ing.     If   they   are   all   bearing   very    small    fruit,    it    would   be   a   question 


54  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

whether  they  were  worth  keeping  at  all,  because  grafting  on  the 
kind  of  growth  which  you  describe  would  be  unlikely  to  yield  satis- 
factory tree  forms,  though  you  might  get  a  good  deal  of  fruit  from 
them. 

Olives   from   Cuttings. 

/  have  tzvo  choice  olive  trees  on  my  place.  I  am  anxious  to  get  trees 
from  these  old  ones  and  do  not  knozv  how  to  go  about  it.  Can  I  grow 
the  yonng  trees  by  using  cuttings  or  slips  from  these  old  trees?  If  so, 
zvhen  is  the  proper  time  to  select  the  cuttings,  and  how  should  they  be 
planted? 

Take  cuttings  of  old  wood,  one-half  or  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  about  ten  inches  long,  and  plant  them  about  three- 
quarters  of  their  length  in  a  sandy  loam  soil  in  a  row  so  water  can 
be  run  alongside  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  soil  moist  but 
not  too  wet.  Such  dormant  cuttings  can  be  put  in  when  the  soil 
begins  to  warm  up  with  the  spring  sunshine.  They  can  be  put  in 
the  places  where  you  desire  them  to  grow  in  one  or  two  years. 
Olives,  like  other  evergreen  trees,  should  be  transplanted  in  the 
spring  when  there  is  heat  enough  to  induce  them  to  take  hold  at 
once  in  their  new  places,  and  not  during  the  winter  when  dormant 
deciduous  trees  are  best  transplanted. 

Water  and  Frost. 

/  have  in  mind  two  pieces  of  land  well  adapted  to  citrus  culture. 
Both  have  the  same  elevation,  soil,  climate  and  water  conditions,  except 
that  one  piece  is  a  mile  of  the  Kaweah  river,  while  the  other  is  four  or 
five  miles  distant.  In  case  of  a  frost,  all  conditions  being  about  the  same, 
ivliich  piece  zvould  you  consider  to  be  liable  to  suffer  the  more?  In  the 
heavy  frost  of  last  December,  zvhile  neither  sustained  any  great  damage, 
that  portion  of  the  ground  nearer  the  river  seemed  to  sustain  the  less. 
Is  this  correct  in  theory?  The  Kaweah  river  at  this  point  is  a  good- 
sized  stream  of  rapidly  flowing  water. 

The  land  near  the  river,  conditions  of  elevation  being  similar, 
would  be  less  liable  to  frost.  There  are  a  good  many  instances 
where  the  presence  of  a  considerable  body  of  water  prevents  the 
lowering  of  the  temperature  of  the  air  immediately  adjacent.  It  is 
so  at  various  points  along  the  Sacramento  river,  and  it  is  recog- 
nized as  a  general  principle  that  bodies  of  water  exert  a  warming 
influence  upon  their  immediate  environment  even  in  regions  with  a 
hard  winter.  How  much  it  may  count  for  must  be  determined  by 
taking  other  conditions  into  the  account  also. 

Thinning  Oranges. 

Is  it  advisable  to  thin  fruit  on  young  citrus  trees?  Our  trees  have 
been  bearing  about  three  years,  but  they  are  still  small  trees.  The  oranges 
and  grape  fruit  ripen  zvell  and  are  large  and  of  excellent  quality,  but  the 
trees  seem  overloaded. 


Fruit  Growing  55 

The  size  of  oranges  on  over-burdened  trees  can  be  increased 
by  thinning,  just  as  other  fruits  are  enlarged,  but  it  is  not  system- 
atically undertaken  as  with  peaches  and  apricots,  because  it  is  not 
so  necessar}^  and  because  it  is  easy  to  get  oranges  on  young  trees 
too  large  and  to  be  discounted  for  over-sized  coarse  fruit.  Removing 
part  of  the  fruit  from  young  trees  is  often  done — for  the  good  of 
the  tree,  not  for  the  good  of  the  fruit.  It  should  be  done  after  the 
natural  drop   takes  place,  during  the   summer. 

Wind-blown    Orange  Trees. 

What  zijould  you  do  for  citrus  trees  fi:r  years  old  that  have  been 
badly  bloivn  out  of  shape? 

Such  trees  must  be  trued  up  by  pruning  into  the  wind;  that  is, 
cutting  to  outside  buds  on  the  windward  side  and  to  inside  buds 
on  the  lee  side;  also  reducing  the  weight  by  pruning  away  branches 
v/hich  have  been  blown  too  far  to  the  leeward.  Sometimes  trees 
can  be  straightened  by  moving  part  of  the  soil  and  pulling  into  the 
wind  and  bracing  there  by  a  good  prop  on  the  leeward  side,  but  that, 
of  course,  is  not  practicalDle  if  the  trees  have  attained  too  much  size. 

Handling  Balled  Citrus  Trees. 

/  have  some  orange  and  lemon  trees  zvhich  zvere  sent  me  with  their 
roots  balled  up  zvith  dirt  and  sacks.  As  zve  are  still  having  frosts  I  have 
not  zvanted  to  set  them  out.  Would  it  not  be  better  to  let  them  stay  as 
they  are  and  keep  the  sacks  zvet  (they  have  a  sack  box  over  them)  than 
to  put  them  out  while  the  frosts  last? 

Your  citrus  trees  will  not  be  injured  for  a  time  unless  mold 
should  set  in  from  the  wet  sacks.  Get  them  into  the  ground  as  soon 
as  the  soil  comes  into  good  condition,  and  cover  the  top  for  a  time 
after  they  are  planted  to  protect  them  against  frosts.  This  would 
be  better  than  to  hold  them  too  long  in  the  balls,  but  do  not  plant 
in  cold,  wet  soil;  hold  them  longer  as  they  are. 

The  Navel  Not  Thornless. 

I  have  lately  purchased  some  Washington  navel  orange  trees,  and 
upon  arrival  I  find  they  have  thorns  upon  them.  I  thought  the  Wash- 
ington navels  were  thornless. 

The  navel  orange  tree  is  not  thornless.  It  is  described  as  a 
medium  thorny  variety,  so  that  the  finding  of  thorns  upon  the  trees 
would  not  be  in  itself  sufficient  indication  that  they  were  not  of  the 
right  variety. 

Over-size  Oranges. 

/  have  some  orange  trees  in  a  disintegrated  granite  with  a  good  many 
small  pieces  of  rock  still  remaining  in  the  soil.  What  I  zvish  to  know 
is  whether  it  is  probably  something  in  the  soil  that  makes  them  grozv  too 
large,  or  is  it  probably  the  method  of  treatment?  What  treatment  should 
be  adopted  to  guard  against  this  e.vccssive  grozvth? 


56  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Young  trees  have  a  natural  disposition  to  produce  outside  sizes 
of  fruit,  and  this  is  sometimes  aggravated  by  excessive  use  of  fer- 
tilizers, sometimes  by  over-irrigation.  We  would  cease  to  fertilize 
for  a  time  and  to  regulate  irrigation  so  that  the  trees  will  have 
enough  to  be  thrifty  without  undertaking  excessive  growth.  Such 
soil  as  you  describe  is  sometimes  very  rich  at  the  beginning  in 
available  plant  food,  and  fertilization  should  be  delayed  until  this 
excess  has  been  appropriated  by  the  tree. 

Budding   or   Grafting   in    Orange    Orchard. 

/  have  land  nozv  ready  to  be  planted  to  oranges,  but  it  is  impossible 
for  me  to  buy  the  necessary  budded  stock  now  or  even  later  this  year. 
Would  you  advise  me  to  plant  the  "sour  stock"  as  it  comes  from  the 
nursery  and  have  it  budded  or  croivn-buddcd  later?  Are  there  any  real 
objections  to  this  method,  and,  if  so,  what  are  they? 

It  is  perfectly  feasible  to  plant  sour-stock  seedlings  and  to  graft 
them  afterward  to  whatever  variety  of  oranges  you  desire  to  grow, 
but  it  is  undoubtedly  better  to  pay  a  pretty  good  price  for  budded 
trees  of  the  kind  you  desire  rather  than  incur  the  delay  and  the  ir- 
regular growth  of  young  trees  budded  or  grafted  in  the  field.  There 
is  also  danger  of  an  irregular  stand  from  accidental  injuries  to  new 
growth  started  in  the  field  without  the  protection  which  it  finds  in 
the  nursery  row. 

Budding  Oranges. 

Hozu  late  in  the  fall  can  budding  of  orange  trees  be  done — plants  that 
are  two  years  old — and  zvhat  advantage,  if  any,  is  late  budding?  What 
shall  I  do  zvith  some  old  trees  that  zvere  budded  about  two  months  ago 
and  are  still  green  but  not  sprouted  yet?  The  budding  was  done  on  young 
shoots. 

Late  budding  of  the  orange  can  be  done  as  late  as  the  bark 
will  slip  well;  usually,  however,  not  quite  so  late  as  this.  Such  buds 
are  preferred  because  in  the  experience  of  most  people  they  make 
stronger  growth  than  those  put  in  in  the  spring.  Such  buds  are  not 
expected  to  grow  until  the  lowest  temperatures  of  the  winter  are 
over.  The  buds  which  you  speak  of  as  green  but  still  dormant  are 
doing  just  what  they  ought  to  do.  They  will  start  when  they  get 
ready. 

Under-pruning  of  Orange  Trees. 

My  Washington  Navels  have  a  very  heavy  crop  on  the  lozver  limbs, 
as  is  usual.  These  branches  are  so  lozv  dozvn  that  many  of  the  oranges 
lie  on  the  ground,  and  it  takes  a  good  deal  of  time  to  prop  them  up  so 
that  they  will  not  touch  the  ground.  What  would  be  the  result  of  pruning 
off  these  low  branches,  after  the  fruit  is  off?  Will  the  same  amount  of 
fruit  be  produced  by  the  fruit  growing  on  the  limbs  higher  up? 

Certainly,  raise  the  branches  of  the  orange  trees  by  removing 
the  lowest  branches  or  parts  of  branches  which  reach  to  the  ground. 
A    little    later   others    will    sag    down    and    this    under-pruning    will    have 


Fruit  Growing  57 

to  be  continuous.  It  would  be  better  to  do  this  than  to  undertake 
any  radical  removal  of  the  lower  branches.  Tlic  progressive  re- 
moval as  becomes  necessary  will  not  appreciably  reduce  the  fruit- 
ing and  will   be  in   many  wa3'S  desirable. 

Keeping  Citrus  Trees  Low. 

My  tangerines  last  fall  shot  %it>  like  lemon  trees — a  dozen  to  twenty 
shoots  two  or  three  feet  high.  The  trees  are  eight  years  old  and  are 
loaded  zvith  bloom  and  some  of  the  shoots  have  buds  and  bloom  clear  to 
the  top.  Some  shoots  have  no  bloom.  What  should  I  do  with  these 
shoots?     Cut  them  back   like  lemons  or  let   them   remain? 

You  must  shorten  the  shoots  if  you  desire  to  have  a  low  tree. 
This  will  cause  their  branching  and  it  will  be  necessary,  therefore, 
to  remove  some  of  the  shoots  entirely,  either  now  or  later,  in  order 
that  the  tree  will  not  become  too  compact. 

Dying   Back   of   Fruit  Trees. 

/  have  a  fetv  orange  and  lemon  frees  that  are  starting  to  die.  One 
tree  has  died  on  the  top.     What  kind  of  spray  shall  I  nsef 

The  dying  back  of  a  tree  at  the  top  indicates  that  the  trouble 
is  in  the  roots,  and  it  is  usually  due  to  standing  water  in  the  soil, 
resulting  either  from  excessive  application  of  water  or  because  the 
soil  is  too  retentive  to  distribute  an  amount  of  water  which  might 
not  be  excessive  on  a  lighter  soil  which  would  allow  of  its  freer 
movement.  Dig  down  near  the  tree  and  see  if  you  have  not  a  muddy 
subsoil.  The  same  trouble  would  result  if  the  subsoil  is  too  dry, 
and  that  also  you  can  ascertain  by  digging.  If  you  find  moisture  ample, 
and  yet  not  excessive,  the  injury  to  the  root  might  be  due  to  the  presence 
of  alkali,  or  to  excessive  use  of  fertilizers.  The  cause  of  the  trouble 
has  to  be  determined  by  local  examination  and  cannot  be  prescribed 
on  the  basis  of  a  description  of  the  plant.  It  cannot  be  cured  by 
spraying  unless  specific  parasite  is   found  which  can  be  killed  by  it. 

Young  Trees  Dropping  Fruit. 

/  have  a  fezv  citrus  fruit  trees  about  three  years  old.  They  have  made 
a  good  growth  and  are  between  seven  and  eight  feet  high  with  a  good 
shaped  top  or  head.  I  did  not  expect  any  fruit  last  year  and  did  not  have 
any.  This  spring  they  blossomed  irregularly  at  blooming  time,  but  quite 
an  amount  of  fruit  set  and  grew  as  large  as  marbles,  some  of  it  the  size 
of  a  walnut,  but  lately  it  has  about  all  fallen  off  the  trees. 

There  is  always  more  or  less  dropping  from  fruit  trees.  Some 
years  large  numbers  of  oranges  drop.  There  may  be  many  causes, 
and  the  trouble  has  thus  far  not  been  found  preventable.  When  the 
foliage  is  good  and  the  growth  satisfactory,  the  young  tree  is  cer- 
tainly not  in  need  of  anything.  It  is  rather  more  likely  that  fruit 
is  dropped  by  the  young  trees  owing  to  their  excessive  vegetative 
vigor,    for    it    is    a    general    fact    that    fruit    trees    which    are    growing 


58  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

very  fast  are  less  certain  in  fruit-setting.  It  is,  of  course,  possible 
that  you  have  been  forcing  such  action  by  too  free  use  of  water. 
You  will  do  well  to  let  your  trees  go  along  so  long  as  they  appear 
thrifty  and  satisfactory,  and  expect  better  fruiting  when  they  be- 
come  older. 

Orange  Training. 

Is  not  a  single  leader  in  an  orange  tree  more  desirable  than  the  much- 
forked  tree  so  commonly  seen?  Can  a  single-leader  tree  he  made  from 
the  nursery  trees  which  have  already  formed  their  heads,  by  cutting  off 
the  heads  below  so  that  only  a  straight  stick  without  any  branches  is  left? 

An  orange  tree  with  a  central  leader  would  not  be  at  all  satis- 
factory if  it  were  carried  very  high.  Of  course,  a  central  stem  can 
be  to  advantage  taken  higher  than  it  is  often  done,  but  we  would  not 
think  of  growing  an  orange  tree  with  a  central  stem  to  the  apex. 
The  laterals  would  droop,  crowd  down  upon  each  other  badly,  open 
the  center  to  sunburn,  and  encourage  also  a  growth  of  central 
suckers  and  occasion  an  amount  of  pruning  altogether  beyond  what 
is  necessary  with  a  properly  branched  tree   without  a  central   stem. 

Curing   Citron. 

/  wish  to  knozv  a  way  to  cure  citrons  at  home.  I  have  a  fine  tree 
that  has  borne  very  fine-looking  fruit  for  the  past  two  years. 

An  outline  for  the  preparation  of  candied  citron  is  as  follows: 
The  fruit,  before  assuming  a  yellow  color,  and  also  when  bright  yellow, 
is  picked  and  placed  in  barrels  filled  with  brine,  and  left  for  at  least 
a  month.  The  brine  is  renewed  several  times,  and  the  fruit  allowed 
to  remain  in  it  until  required  for  use,  often  for  a  period  of  four  or 
five  months.  When  the  citrons  are  to  be  candied  they  are  taken 
from  the  barrels  and  boiled  in  fresh  water  to  soften  them.  They 
are  then  cut  into  halves,  the  seed  and  pulp  are  removed,  and  the 
fruit  is  again  immersed  in  cold  water,  soon  becoming  of  a  greenish 
color.  After  this  it  is  placed  in  large  earthen  jars,  covered  with  hot 
syrup,  and  allowed  to  stand  about  three  weeks.  During  this  time 
the  strength  of  the  syrup  is  gradually  increased.  The  fruit  is  then 
put  into  boilers  with  crystallized  sugar  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity 
of  water,  and  cooked;  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  boiled  again  until 
it  will  take  up  no  more  sugar.  It  is  then  dried  and  packed  in  wooden 
boxes. 

Crops  Between  Orange  Trees. 

What  crop  can  I  plant  between  rows  of  young  orange  trees  to  utilize 
the  ground  as  zvell  as  pay  a  little  something? 

It  depends  not  alone  upon  what  will  grow,  but  upon  what  can 
be  profitably  sold  or  used  on  the  place,  and  unless  sure  of  that, 
it  is  usually  better  not  to  undertake  planting  between  young  trees 
but  rather  to  cultivate  well,  irrigate  intelligently,  and  trust  for  the 
reward  in  a  better  growth  and  later  productiveness  of  the  trees.  It 
is     clear,     California     experience     that     planting     between     trees    ex- 


Fruit  Growing  59 

cept  to  things  which  are  demonstrated  to  be  profitable  should  not 
be  undertaken,  and  where  one  does  not  need  immediate  returns  is, 
as  a  rule,  undesirable.  The  growth  of  a  strip  of  alfalfa,  if  one  is 
careful  not  to  submerge  the  trees  by  over-irrigation,  would  be  the 
best  thing  one  could  undertake  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  soil 
by  increasing  the  humus  content,  reducing  the  amount  of  rellcctcd 
heat  from  a  clean  surface,  and  is  otherwise  desirable  wherever 
moisture  is  available  for  it.  You  could  also  grow  cow  peas  for  the 
good  of  the  land  if  not  for  other  profit.  You  can,  of  course,  grow 
small  fruits  and  vegetables  for  home  use  if  you  will  cultivate  well. 
Common  field  crops,  with  scant  cultivation,  will  generally  cause  you 
to  lose  more  from  the  bad  condition  in  which  they  leave  the  soil 
than  you  can  gain  from  the  use  or  sale  of  the  crop. 

Navels  and  Valencias. 

Navel  trees  are  being  budded  to  Valencias  in  southern  California, 
because  of  the  higher  price  received  for  the  late-ripening  Valencias.  Are 
the  orchards  in  central  and  northern  California  being  planted  in  Navels, 
and  is  there  any  differnce  in  soil  or  climate  requirements  of  Navels  and 
Valencias? 

There  is  no  particular  difference  in  the  soil  requirements  of 
Valencia  and  Navel  orranges.  They  are  both  budded  on  the  same  root. 
The  desirability  of  Navel  oranges  in  the  upper  citrus  districts  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  policy  of  those  districts  at  the  present  time 
is  to  produce  an  early  orange.  This  they  could  not  accomplish  by 
growing  the  Valencia.  The  great  advantage  of  the  Valencia  in 
southern  California,  on  the  other  hand,  lies  in  the  very  fact  that  it 
is  late  and  that  it  can  be  marketed  in  midsummer  and  early  autumn 
when  there  are  no  Navels  available  from  anywhere. 

Orange  Seedlings, 

What  about  planting  the  seed  from  St.  Michael's  oranges  or  of  grape- 
fruit for  a  seed-bed  to  be  budded  to  Valencias f 

Good  plump  St.  Michael's  seeds  would  be  all  right  if  you  desire 
to  use  sweet  seedling  stock.  Grapefruit  seedlings  are  good  and  quite 
widely  used,  though  the  general  preference  is  for  sour-stock  seed- 
lings. 

Acres  of  Oranges  to  a  Man. 

In  your  op)iion,  is  it  possible  for  one  man,  of  average  strength,  to 
take  perfect  care  of  a  twenty-acre  citrus  orchard?  Are  the  services  of 
a  man  ivho  takes  the  entire  responsibility  of  an  orchard  (citrus)  worth 
more  than  those  of  a  common  ranch  hand? 

It  depends  upon  the  man,  upon  the  age  of  the  trees,  upon  the 
kind  of  soil  he  has  to  handle,  upon  the  irrigation  arrangements  and 
upon  what  you  mean  by  "perfect  care."  If  you  contract  the  picking 
and  hauling  of  fruit,  the  fumigation  and  allow  extra  help  when  con- 
ditions   require    that    something    must    be    done    quickly,    whatever    it 


60  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

may  be,  a  man  with  good  legs  and  arms,  and  a  good  head  full  of 
special  knowledge  to  make  them  go,  can  handle  twenty  acres  and 
if  he  does  it  right  you  ought  to  pay  him  twice  as  much  as  an  ordi- 
nary ranch   hand. 

Roots  for  Orange  Trees. 

IVhat  are  the  conditions  most  favorable  to  orange  trees  budded  upon 
sour  stock;  also  upon  sivcct  stock  and  trifoliata? 

The  sour  stock  is  believed  to  be  more  hardy  against  trying  con- 
ditions of  soil  moisture — both  excess  and  deficiency,  and  diseases 
incident  thereto.  The  sweet  stock  is  a  free  growing  and  satisfactory 
stock  and  most  of  the  older  orchards  are  upon  this  root,  but  it  is 
held  to  be  less  resistant  of  soil  troubles  than  the  sour  stock,  and 
therefore  propagators  are  now  largely  using  the  latter.  The  trifoli- 
ata has  been  promoted  as  more  likely  to  induce  dormancy  of  the 
top  growth  during  cold  weather,  because  of  its  own  deciduous  habit. 
It  has  also  been  advocated  as  likely  to  induce  earlier  maturity  in 
the  fruit  and  thus  minister  to  early  marketing.  The  objection  urged 
against  it  has  been  a  claimed  dwarfing  of  the  tree  worked  upon  it. 

Citrus  Budding. 

/  zvish  to  bud  some  Maltese  blood  orange  trees  to  pomelos  and  lem- 
ons. Will  they  make  good  stock  for  them,  and,  if  so,  is  it  necessary  to 
cut  below  the  original  bud? 

It  is  possible  to  bud  as  you  propose,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to 
go  back  to  the  old  stock.     Work  in  above  the  forks. 

No  Citrus  Fruits  on  Lemon  Roots. 

Would  it  be  any  advantage  to  bud  the  Washington  Navel  on  grape- 
fruit and  lemon  roots? 

The  grapefruit  or  pomelo  is  a  good  root  for  the  orange,  and 
some  propagators  prefer  it.  The  lemon  root  is  not  used  at  present, 
because  of  its  eflfect  in  causing  a  coarse  growth  of  tree  and  fruit 
and  because  it  is  more  subject  to  disease  than  the  orange  root.  In 
fact,   we   grow  nearly  all   lemons   on   orange   roots. 

Budding  Oranges. 

My  first  attempt  at  budding,  I  cut  20  buds  and  immediately  inserted 
in  stock  of  Mexican  sour  orange  "Amataca."  I  left  bands  on  them  for 
ten  days  at  zuhich  time  about  half  seemed  to  have  "stuck,"  but  after  a  fezv 
days  the  bark  curled  azcay  and  the  buds  dried  up  and  died.  I  then 
tried  again,  but  left  the  bands  on  for  thirteen  days  and  lightly  tied 
strings  around  bclozv  the  bud  to  prevent  the  bark  from  curling,  and  also 
put  grafting  zvax  in  the  cut  and  over  the  bud.  These  appeared  fresh 
and  green  at  time  of  taking  off  the  bands,  but  three  weeks  later 
I   found   them  rotted.      The  grafting   wax   used   was   made   of   beeswax, 


Fruit  Growing  61 

resin,  olive  oil  and  a  small  amount  of  lard  to  soften  it.     Do  you   think 
that  the  action   of  the  lard  on  the  buds  zvould  cause  them  to  rot.' 

Consider  first  whether  the  buds  which  you  use  are  sufficiently 
developed;  that  is,  a  sufficient  amount  of  hardness  and  maturity 
attained  by  the  twig  from  which  you  took  these  buds.  Second,  use 
a  waxed  band,  drawing  it  quite  tightly  around  the  bark,  above  and 
below  the  bud,  covering  the  bud  itself  without  too  much  pressure 
for  several  days,  then  loosening  the  band  somewhat,  but  carefully 
replacing  over  all  but  the  bud  point.  It  is  necessary  to  exclude  the 
air  sufficiently,  but  not  wholly.  The  use  of  a  soft  fat  like  olive  oil 
or  lard  is  not  desirable.  If  you  use  oil  at  all  for  the  purpose  of 
softening,  linseed  oil,  as  used  by  painters,  is  safer  because  of  its  dis- 
position to  dry  without  so  much  penetration.  Having  used  olive 
oil  and  lard  together  you  had  too  much  soft  fatty  material. 

Budding   Orange  Seedlings  in  the  Orchard. 

What  are  the  objections  or  advantages  of  planting  sour  stock  seed- 
lings where  one  zvishes  the  trees  and  one  or  tivo  years  later  bud  into  the 
branches  instead  of  budding  the  young  stock  lozv  on  the  trunk? 

Planting  the  seedling  and  at  some  future  time  cutting  back  the 
branches  and  grafting  in  the  head  above  the  forks  is  an  expensive 
operation  and  loses  time  in  getting  fruit.  You  will  get  very  irregu- 
lar trees  and  be  disappointed  in  the  amount  of  re-working  you  will 
have  to  do.  Suckers  must  be  always  watched  for;  that  has  to  be 
done  anyway,  but  a  sucker  from  a  wild  stock  is  worse  in  effects  if 
you  happen  to  overlook  it.  Avoid  all  such  trouble  by  planting  good 
clean  trees  budded  in  nursery  rows.  You  may  have  to  do  rebudding 
later,  if  you  want  to  change  varieties,  and  that  is  trouble  enough. 
Do  not  rush  at  the  beginning  into  all  the  difficulties  there  are. 

Grapefruit  and  Nuts. 

Peaches,  pears  and  plums  predominate  in  this  section,  but  zvould  not 
grapefruit,  almonds  and  English  zvalnuts  be  just  as  profitable?  What  is 
your  idea  about  English  zvalnuts  on  black  zvalnut  root? 

You  can  expect  grapefruit  to  succeed  under  conditions  which 
favor  the  orange.  Therefore,  if  oranges  are  doing  well  in  your  dis- 
trict, grapefruit  might  also  be  expected  to  succeed  on  the  same  soils 
and  with  the  same  treatment.  Planting  of  almonds  should  proceed 
upon  a  demonstration  that  the  immediate  location  is  suited  to  al- 
monds, because  they  are  very  early  to  start  and  very  subject  to 
spring  frost  and  should  not  be  planted  unless  you  can  find  bearing 
trees  which  have  demonstrated  their  acceptance  of  the  situation  by 
regular  and  profitable  crops.  English  walnuts  are  less  subject  to 
frosts  because  they  start  much  later  in  the  season.  They  need,  how- 
ever, deep,  rich  land  which  will  be  sure  not  to  dry  out  during  the 
summer.  English  walnuts  are  a  perfect  success  upon  the  California 
black  walnut  root. 


62  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Soil  and  Situation  for  Oranges. 

Is  it  absolutely  essential  that  orange  trees  be  planted  on  a  southern 
slope,  or  will  they  thrive  as  zvell  on  any  slope f  What  is  the  minimum 
depth  of  soil  required  for  orange  trees F  How  can  I  tell  whether  the  soil 
is  good  for  oranges? 

Orange  trees  are  grown  successfully  on  all  slopes,  although  in 
particular  localities  certain  exposures  may  be  decidedly  best,  as  must 
be  learned  by  local  observation.  How  shallow  a  soil  will  suit  orange 
trees  depends  upon  how  water  and  fertilizer  are  applied;  on  a  shal- 
low soil  more  fertilizer  and  more  frequent  use  of  water  in  smaller 
quantities.  Any  soil  which  has  grown  good  grain  crops  may  be  used 
for  orange  growing  if  the  moisture  supply  is  never  too  scant  and 
any  excess  is  currently  disposed  of  by  good  drainage.  There  can 
be  no  arbitrary  rule  either  for  exposure,  depth  or  texture  of  soils, 
because  oranges  are  being  successfully  grown  on  medium  loam  to 
heavy  clay  loam,  providing  the  moisture  supply  is  kept  right. 

Transplanting  Orange  Trees. 

Can  you  transplant  trees  two  years  old  zvith  safety  to  another  location 
in  same  grove,  same  soil,  etc.? 

Yes;  and  you  can  move  them  a  greater  distance,  if  you  like. 
Take  up  the  trees  with  a  good  ball  of  earth,  transplanting  in  the 
spring  when  the  ground  has  become  well  warmed,  just  about  at  the 
time  when  new  growth  begins  to  appear  on  the  tree.  The  top  of 
the  tree  should  he  cut  back  somewhat  and  the  leaves  should  be  removed 
if  they  show  a  disposition  to  wilt.  You  should  also  whitewash  or  other- 
wise protect  the  bark  from  sunburn  if  the  foliage  should  be  removed. 

Protecting  Young  Citrus  Trees. 

Is  it  necessary  to  have  young  orange  trees  covered  or  leave  them  un- 
covered during  the  zvinter  months? 

It  is  desirable  to  cover  with  burlaps  or  bale  with  cornstalks, 
straw  or  some  other  coarse  litter,  all  young  trees  which  are  being 
planted  in  untried  places;  and  even  where  old  trees  are  safe,  young 
trees  which  go  into  the  frost  period  with  new  growth  of  immature 
wood  should  be  thus  protected.  Do  not  use  too  much  stuff  nor 
bundle  too  tightly. 

Not  Orange  on  the  Osage. 

Can  the  Navel  orange  be  grafted  on  the  osage  orange?  I  understand 
it  is  done  in  Florida,  and  zvould  like  to  know  if  it  has  been  tried  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

It  cannot.  It  has  not  been  done  in  Florida  nor  anywhere  else. 
The  osage  orange  is  not  an  orange  at  all.  The  tree  is  not  a  member 
of  the   citrus   family. 


Fruit  Growing  63 

No  PoUenizer  for  Navels. 

/  read  that  the  Hozvers  of  the  Navel  orange  are  entirely  lacking  in 
pollen,  or  only  poorly  supplied.  If  this  is  true,  tvhat  variety  of  orange 
would  you  plant  in  a  Navel  grove  to  supply  pollen  at  the  proper  titne? 

We  would  not  plant  any  other  orange  near  the  Navel  for  the 
sake  of  supplying  it  with  pollen.  Pollen  is  only  needed  to  make 
seeds,  and  by  the  same  process  to  make  the  fruit  set,  and  Navels  do 
not  make  seeds,  except  rarely,  nor  do  they  seem  to  need  pollen  to 
make  the  fruit  set. 

Water  and  Frost. 

From  hozv  many  acres  could  I  keep  off  a  freeze  of  oranges  zvith 
1000  gallons  per  minute?     The  water  is  at  65  degrees. 

The  amount  of  water  will  prevent  frost  over  as  large  an  area 
as  you  can  cover  with  the  water,  so  as  to  thoroughly  wet  the  surface, 
but  the  presence  of  water  will  only  be  effective  through  about  four 
degrees  of  temperature  and  only  for  a  short  time.  If,  then,  the  tem- 
perature should  fall  below  27  degrees  and  should  remain  at  that 
point  for  an  hour  or  two,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  water  would  save  your 
fruit.  Water  is  only  of  limited  value  in  the  prevention  of  frost,  and 
of  no  value  at  all  when  the  temperature  falls  too  low. 

What  to  Do  with  Frosted  Oranges. 

What  is  the  best  plan  of  treatment  for  frosted  orange  trees?  The 
crop  will  be  a  total  loss.  It  does  not  shoiv  any  tendency  to  fall  off  the 
trees,  however.  Should  it  be  picked  off,  thrown  on  the  ground  and  plozved 
under?     Should  this  be  done  right  away  or  later? 

Unsound  fruit  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  its  injury  can  be 
conveniently  detected  and  worked  into  the  soil  by  cultivation;  never, 
however,  being  allowed  to  collect  in  masses,  which  is  productive  of 
decay  and  which  may  be  injurious  to  roots.  If  trees  are  injured 
sufficiently  to  lose  most  of  their  leaves,  the  fruit  should  also  be  re- 
moved if  it  shows  a  disposition  to  hang  on.  This  will  be  a  contri- 
bution to  the  strength  of  the  tree  and  its  ability  to  clothe  itself  with 
new  foliage. 

Pruning  Frosted  Citrus  Trees. 

How  shall  I  prune  two-year-old  orange  orchard,  also  nursery  stock 
buds  that  are  badly  injured  by  frost;  how  much  to  prune  and  at  what  time? 

As  soon  as  you  can  see  how  far  injury  has  gone  down  the  branch 
or  stem,  cut  below  it,  so  that  a  new  shoot  may  push  out  from  sound 
wood,  and  heal  the  cut  as  soon  as  possible.  This  applies  to  growths 
of  all  ages.  In  the  case  of  buds,  if  you  can  only  save  a  single  node 
you  may  get  a  bud  started  there  and  make  a  tree  of  that.  In  the 
case  of  trees,  large  or  small,  it  is  always  desirable  to  cut  above  the 
forkings  of  the  main  branches,  if  possible,  and  when  this  much  of 
the  tree  remains  sound,  a  new  tree  can  be  formed  very  quickly.  If 
the  main   stem   is   injured,   bark   cracked,   etc.,   cut   below  the  ground 


64  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

and  put  scions  in  the  bark  without  splitting  the  root  crown;  wax 
well  or  otherwise  cover  exposed  wood  to  prevent  checking.  If  this 
is  successfully  done,  root-rot  may  be  prevented  and  the  wound  cov- 
ered with  new  bark  while  the  strong  new  stems  are  developing  above. 

Pruning  Oranges. 

Is  it  best  to  prune  out  orange  trees  by  removing  occasional  branches 
so  as  to  permit  free  air  passage  through  the  trees?  Some  are  advocating 
doing  so;  but  as  I  remember,  the  trees  in  southern  California  are  allowed 
to  groiv  quite  dense,  so  that  zve  could  see  into  the  foliage  but  very  little. 

It  is  a  matter  of  judgment,  with  a  present  tendency  toward  a 
more  open  tree  than  was  formerly  prescribed.  Trees  should  be  more 
thrifty  and  should  bear  more  fruit  deeper  in  the  foliage-wall  if  more 
air  and  light  are  admitted.  But  this  can  be  had  without  opening 
the  tree  so  that  free  sight  of  its  interior  is  possible.  We  believe 
thinning  of  the  growth  to  admit  more  light  and  air  is  good,  but  we- 
should  not  intentionally  cut  enough  to  make  holes  in  the  tree. 

Pecan  Growing. 

Would  you  advise  planting  of  pecans  in  commercial  orchards  here? 
Walnuts  in  their  proper  location  constitute  some  of  California's  best  im- 
provements. After  visiting  some  bearing  paper-shell  pecans  here  in  Fresno 
county,  I  believe  a  pecan  orchard  of  choice  variety  would  be  more  desir- 
able than  a  zvalnut  orchard. 

Pecans  do  well  on  moist  rich  land  in  the  interior  valleys  where 
there  are  sharper  temperature  changes  than  in  the  coast  valleys,  ex- 
cept perhaps  near  the  upper  coast.  Such  planting  as  you  propose 
seems  promising  on  lands  having  moisture  enough  to  carry  the  nuts 
to  full  ripening. 

Growing  Filberts. 

Please  give  information  about  growing  filberts. 

Filberts  have  been  largely  a  disappointment  in  California  and 
no  product  of  any  amount  has  ever  been  made.  Good  nuts  have 
been  produced  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast 
Range.  Theoretically,  the  places  where  the  wild  hazel  grows  would 
best  suit  the  filbert,  and  so  far  this  seem.s  to  be  justified  by  the  little 
that  has  actually  been  done,  but  there  is  very  little  to  say  about  it 
beyond  that.  It  requires  much  more  experience  to  lift  the  nut  out 
of  the   experimental   state. 

Early  Bearing  of  Walnuts. 

Please  inform  me  if  young  ivahmt  trees  grafted  on  black  zvalnut 
stock  zvill  produce  fruit  zvithin  i8  months  after  being  planted. 

It  is  true  that  the  French  varieties  of  English  walnuts  have  pro- 
duced fruit  the  second  summer  of  their  growth.  This  does  not  mean, 
however,   that'  you  can   count  upon  a  crop   the  second   year.     These 


Fruit  Growing  65* 

are  usually  grafts  in  nursery  rows,  and  one  would  have  to  wait' 
longer,  as  a  rule,  for  trees  planted  out  in  orchards  with  a  chance  to 
make  a  freer  wood  growth.  This  is  rather  fortunate,  hecause  it  is 
better  to  have  a  larger  tree  than  to  have  the  growth  diverted  into 
bearing  a  small  amount  of  fruit  while  the  tree  is  very  young.  We 
do  not  know  any  advantage  in  getting  nuts  the  second  year  except 
it  be  to  see  if  you  really  have  secured  the  variety  you  desire  to  pro- 
duce later. 

Handling  Walnut  Seedlings, 

JVIiat  is  the  best  time  to  transplant  seedlini^s  of  tlie  blaek  zvalnut? 

Transplant  during  the  dormant  season  (as  shown  by  absence  of 
leaves)  when  the  soil  is  in  good  condition.  Handle  them  just  as  you 
would  an  apple  tree,  for  instance. 

How  to  Start  English  Walnuts. 

In  starting  English  ivaJnuts,  shall  zve  get  nursery  stoek  grafted  on 
California  black,  or  shall  zvc  start  our  black  zvalnut  seedlings  in  nursery 
plats,  or  plant  the  nuts  zvhere  the  tree  is  zvanted,  and  graft  them  at  ttvo 
or  three  years?  What  is  the  advantage,  if  any,  of  the  long  stock  from 
grafting  high,  over  the  grafted  root? 

If  we  had  the  money  to  invest  and  were  sure  of  the  soil  condi- 
tions, et'c,  we  should  buy  grafted  trees  of  the  variety  we  desired, 
just  as  we  would  of  any  other  kind  of  fruit.  If  we  were  shy  of  money 
and  long  on  time,  we  would  start  seedlings  in  nursery,  plant  out 
seedlings,  and  graft  later,  because  it  is  easier  to  graft  when  the  seed- 
ling is  two  or  three  years  in  place.  We  count  the  planting  of  nuts 
in  place  troublesome  and  of  no  compensating  advantage.  The  chief 
advantage  known  to  us  of  grafting  high  and  getting  a  black  walnut 
trunk  is  the  hardier  bark  of  the  black  walnut. 

Walnut  Planting. 

/  am  planning  to  plant  zvalnuts  on  rather  heaz'v  soil.  I  have  been  told' 
to  put  the  nut  six  inches  belozv  the  surface,  but  think  that  too  deep,  as' 
soil  is  rather  heavy. 

In  a  heavy  soil  we  should  not  plant  these  nuts  more  than  three 
inches  below  the  surface,  but  should  cover  the  surface  with  a  mulch 
of  rotten  straw  to  prevent  drying  out. 

Pruning  Grafted  Walnuts. 

Should  English  zvalnut  trees  he  pruned.''  I  have  along  the  roadside 
English  zvalnuts  grafted  on  the  California  black,  and  they  have  grozvn  to 
very  large  sise  and  the  fruit  seems  to  be  mostly  on  the  outside  of  the  trees. 

English  walnuts  are  not  usually  pruned  much,  though  it  is  often 
desirable,  and  of  course  trees  can  be  improved  by  removing  unde- 
sirable branches  and  especially  where  too  many  branches  have  started 


66  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

from  grafts,  it  is  desirable  that  some  be  removed.  They  should  be 
cleanly  sawed  off  and  the  wound  covered  with  wax  or'  thick  paint 
to  prevent  the  wood  from  decaying. 

Pruning  Walnuts. 

When  is  the  best  time  to  remove  large  limbs  from  zmlnut  trees? 

This  work  with  walnuts  or  other  deciduous  fruit  trees  should 
be  done  late  in  the  winter,  about  the  time  the  buds  are  swelling; 
never  mind  the  bleeding,  it  does  no  harm,  and  the  healing-growth 
over  the  wound  is  more  rapid  while  the  sap  is  pushing. 

Grafting  Walnuts. 

In  cleft  grafting  zvalnuts  is  it  necessary  to  use  scions  ivith  only  a  leaf 
bud,  or  tvith  staminate  or  pistillate  buds?  Is  cutting  the  pith  of  the  scion 
or  stock  fatal  to  the  tree? 

In  grafting  walnuts  it  is  usual  to  take  shoots  bearing  wood  buds, 
and  not  the  spurs  which  carry  the  fruit  blossoms,  although  a  part 
of  the  graft  containing  also  a  wood  bud  can  be  used,  retaining  the 
latter.  Cutting  into  the  pith  of  the  scion  or  of  the  stock  is  not  fatal, 
but  it  is  avoided  because  it  makes  a  split  or  wound  which  is  very 
hard  to  heal.  For  this  reason  it  is  better  to  cut  at  one  side  of  the 
pith  in  the  stock,  and  to  cut  the  scion  so  that  the  slope  is  chiefly  in 
the  wood  at  one  side  of  the  pith  and  not  cutting  a  double  wedge  in 
a  way  to  bring  the  pith  in  the  center. 

Grafting  Nuts  on  Oaks. 

/  hai'c  10  to  15  acres  of  black  oak  trees  zvhich  I  zvish  to  graft  over 
to  chestnuts.     Can  grafting  be  done  successfully? 

Some  success  has  been  secured  in  grafting  the  chestnut  on  the 
chestnut  oak,  but  not,  so  far  as  we  have  heard,  on  the  black  oak. 
But  grafts  on  the  chestnut  oak  are  not  permanently  thrifty  and  pro- 
ductive, though  they  have  been  reported  as  growing  for  some  time. 
The  same  is  true  of  English  walnut  grafts  on  some  of  the  native 
oaks. 

Grafting  Walnut  Seedlings. 

Would  it  be  proper  to  graft  one-year  California  black  tvalnut  seed- 
lings that  must  also  be  transplanted? 

As  the  seedlings  must  be  moved,  plant  in  orchard  and  graft  as 
two  or  three-year-olds,  according  to  the  size  which  they  attain. 

Pruning  the  Walnut. 

What  is  the  proper  time  for  pruning  the  walnut?  Is  it  bad  for  the 
tree  to  prune  during  the  active  season?  I  have  recently  acquired  a  long- 
neglected  grove  in  zvhich  many  large  limbs  zvill  have  to  be  removed  in 


Fruit  Growing  67 

order  to  allow  proper  methods  of  cultivation  to  be  practiced,  and  I  am 
in  doubt  as  to  the  zvisdoni  of  doing  this  during  the  rise  of  sap. 

The  best  time  to  remove  large  limbs  to  secure  rapid  growth  of 
bark  from  the  sides  of  the  cut,  is  just  at  the  time  the  sap  is  rising. 
There  will  be  some  outflow  of  sap,  but  of  no  particular  loss  to  the 
tree.  As  soon  as  the  large  wounds  have  dried  sufficiently,  the  ex- 
posed surface  should  be  painted  to  prevent  cracking  of  the  wood. 

Eastern  or  California  Black  Walnuts? 

/  am  told  that  the  Eastern  black  ivalnut  is  a  more  suitable  root  for 
the  low  lands  in  California  than  the  California  black.     Is  this  true? 

There  has  been  no  demonstration  that  the  Eastern  black  walnut 
is  more  suitable  to  low  moist  lands  than  the  California  black  walnut. 
Our  grandest  California  black  walnut  trees  are  situated  on  low  moist 
lands.  Walnut  Grove  is  on  the  edge  of  the  Sacramento  river  with 
immense  trees  growing  almost  on  the  water's  edge.  Walnut  Creek 
in  Contra  Costa  county  is  also  named  from  large  walnut  trees  on 
the  creek  bank  land.  We  have  very  few  Eastern  black  walnut  trees 
in  California  and  although  they  do  show  appreciation  of  moist  land, 
they  are  not  in  any  respect  better  than  the  Californian. 

Ripening  of  Walnuts. 

/  send  you  two  zvalnuts.     I  am  in  doubt  if  they  will  mature. 

The  nuts  are  well  grown,  the  kernel  fully  formed  in  every  re- 
spect. Whether  they  will  attain  perfect  maturity  must  be  determined 
by  an  observation  of  the  fact  and  cannot  be  theoretically  predicated. 
Where  trees  are  in  such  an  ever-growing  climate  as  you  seem  to 
have,  they  must  apparently  take  a  suggestion  that  the  time  has  ar- 
rived for  maturity  from  the  drying  of  the  soil.  The  roots  should 
know  that  it  is  time  for  them  to  stop  working  so  that  the  foliage 
may  yellow  and  the  nuts  mature.  It  is  possible  that  stopping  culti- 
vation a  little  earlier  in  the  season  may  be  necessary  to  accomplish 
this  purpose. 

Cutting  Below  Dead  Wood. 

/  have  some  seedling  English  ivalnut  trees  zvhich  are  tivo  years  old, 
but  they  are  not  coming  out  in  bud  this  year.  They  are  about  three  feet 
high,  and  from  the  top  dozvn  to  about  10  inches  of  the  ground  the  limbs 
are  dark  brozvn,  and  below  that  they  are  a  nice  green.  I  cut  the  top  off  of 
one  of  them  to  see  what  is  the  matter  that  they  do  not  leaf  out,  and  I 
found  that  there  is  a  round  hole  right  dozvn  through  the  center  of  the 
tree  down  to  the  green  part.  The  hole  is  about  thrce-si.vteenths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  pith  of  the  limbs  has  been  eaten  azuay  by  some 
kind  of  a  worm  from  the  inside.  Would  it  be  better  to  cut  the  tree  dozvn 
to  the  green  part,  or  let  them  alone? 

It  is  the  work  of  a  borer.  Cut  down  to  live  wood  and  paint  over 
the  wound  or  wax  it.     Protect  the  pith  until  the  bark  grows  over  it 


,68  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

or  you  will  have  decay  inside.  If  buds  do  not  start  on  the  trunk, 
take  a  sucker  from  below  to  make  a  tree  of.  You  could  put  a  bud 
in  the  trunk,  but  it  is  not  very  easy  to  do  it. 

Walnuts  in  Alfalfa. 

Will  the  lualiiut  frees  be  injured  in  any  zvay  by  irrigating  them  at  the 
same  time  and  manner  as  the  alfalfa — that  is,  by  flooding  the  land  between 
the  checks?  Will  the  walnuts  make  as  good  a  grozvth  zvhen  planted  in 
the  alfalfa,  and  the  ground  cultivated  two  or  three  feet  around  the  tree, 
as  though  the  alfalfa  tvas  entirely  removed?  Is  it  advisable  to  plant  the 
trees  on  the  checks  rather  than  bctzveen  the  checks? 

Walnut  trees  will  do  well,  providing  you  do  not  irrigate  the  al- 
falfa sufficiently  to  waterlog  the  trees;  providing  also  that  you  do 
use  water  enough  so  that  the  trees  will  not  be  robbed  of  moisture 
by  the  alfalfa.  This  method  of  growing  trees  will  be,  of  course, 
safer  and  probably  more  satisfactory  if  your  soil  is  deep  and  loamy, 
as  it  should  be  to  get  the  best  results  with  both  alfalfa  and  walnuts. 
It  would  be  better  to  have  the  trees  stand  so  that  the  water  does 
not  come  into  direct  contact  with  the  bark,  although  walnut  trees 
arc  irrigated  by  surrounding  them  with  check  levees.  Planting  wal- 
nut trees  in  an  old  stand  of  alfalfa  is  harder  on  the  tree  than  to  start 
alfalfa  after  the  trees  have  taken  hold,  because  the  alfalfa  roots  like 
to  hang  on  to  their  advantage.  In  planting  in  an  old  field,  we  should 
plow  strips,  say,  five  feet  wide  and  keep  it  cultivated  rather  than  to 
try  to  start  the  trees  in  pot-holes,  although  with  extra  care  they 
might  go  that  way. 

Walnuts  in  the  Hills. 

Will  zvalnuts  grozv  ivell  in  the  foothill  country;  elevation  about  600 
feet,  soil  rich,  does  not  crack  in  summer  and  seems  to  have  small  stones 
in  it? 

Walnuts  will  do  well  providing  the  soil  or  subsoil  is  retentive 
enough.  If  you  have  water  available  for  irrigation  in  case  the  trees 
should  need  it,  they  would  do  well,  but  if  the  soil  is  gravelly  way 
down  and  likely  to  dry  out  deeply  and  you  have  no  water  available 
an  opposite  result  might  be  expected.  It  is  a  fact  that  on  some  of 
the  uplands  of  the  coast  mountains  there  is  a  lack  of  moisture  late 
in  the  season  which  interferes  with  the  success  of  some  fruit  trees. 

To  Increase  Bearing  of  Walnuts. 

We  have  a  walnut  orchard  which  does  not  bear  enough  nuts.  The 
trees  are  all  fine,  even  trees,  10  and  12  years  old,  and  zve  are  told  that  the 
crop  was  light  this  year  because  the  trees  were  growing  so  vigorously  and 
put  most  of  their  energy  into  the  new  wood.  Is  there  any  special  fertil- 
i::er  zvhich  zuill  make  the  trees  bear  more  and  not  prompt  such  heavy 
growth  ? 

If  your  adviser  is  right  that  the  trees  are  not  bearing  because 
•of  excessive   growth,   it   would  be   better  not   to  apply  any  fertilizer 


Fruit  Growing  69 

during  the  coming  year,  but  allow  the  trees  to  assume  more  steady 
habit  and  possibly  even  to  encourage  them  to  do  so  by  using  less 
cultivation  and  water.  If  you  wish  to  experiment  with  some  of  the 
trees,  give  them  an  application  of  five  pounds  of  superphosphate  and 
two  pounds  of  potash  to  each  tree,  properly  distributed  over  the 
land  which  it  occupies.  You  certainly  should  not  use  any  form  of 
nitrogen. 

Temperature  and  Moisture  for  the  English  Walnut. 

What  amount  of  freezing  and  drouth  can  English  zcalnuts  stand? 
Under  what  conditions  is  irrigation  necessary? 

The  walnut  tree  will  endure  hard  freezing,  providing  it  comes 
when  the  tree  is  dormant,  because  they  are  successfully  grown  in 
some  parts  of  the  Eastern  States,  though  not  to  a  large  extent;  but 
the  walnut  tree  is  subject  to  injury  from  lighter  frosts,  providing 
they  follow  temperatures  which  have  induced  activity  in  the  tree. 
On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  walnut  is  successfully  grown  as  far  north 
as  the  State  of  Washington,  but  even  in  California  there  are  eleva- 
tions where  frosts  are  likely  to  occur  when  the  tree  is  active,  and 
these  may  be  destructive  to  its  profit,  although  they  may  not  injure 
the  tree.  You  are  not  safe  in  planting  walnuts  to  any  extent  except 
in  places  where  you  can  find  trees  bearing  satisfactorily.  Planting 
elsewhere  is,  of  course,  an  enterprising  experimental  thing  to  do, 
but  very  risky  as  a  line  of  investment.  Irrigation  is  required  if  the 
annual  rainfall,  coupled  with  the  retentiveness  of  the  soil  and  good 
cultivation,  do  not  give  moisture  enough  to  carry  the  tree  well  into 
the  autumn,  maintaining  activity  in  the  leaves  some  little  time  after 
the   fruit  is   gathered. 

Walnuts  from  Seed. 

There  is  a  reliable  nursery  company  selling  seedling  Franquette  walnut 
trees  on  a  positive  guarantee  that  they  zmll  come  true  to  type.  Are  or- 
chards of  this  kind  satisfactory? 

Walnuts  do  come  truer  to  the  seed  than  almonds  and  other 
fruits  and  the  Franquette  has  a  good  reputation  for  remembering  its 
ancestry.  Until  recently  practically  all  the  commercial  walnut  prod- 
uct of  California  was  grown  on  seedling  trees.  But  these  facts 
hardly  justify  one  in  trusting  to  seedlings  in  plantings  now  made. 
The  way  to  get  a  walnut  of  the  highest  type  is  to  take  a  bud  or 
graft  from  a  tree  which  is  bearing  that  type. 

High-grafted  Walnuts. 

What  is  the  advantage  of  a  high-grafted  zvalnut?  I  am  about  ready 
to  plant  10  acres  to  nuts  and  do  not  know  zvhether  to  purchase  Franquette 
grafted  high  on  California  Black  or  not. 

The  advantage  of  grafting  English  walnut  high  on  California 
Black  walnut  consists  in  securing  a  main  trunk  for  the  tree,  which  is 
less   liable    to    sunburn    and    probably    hardier    otherwise    than    is    the 


70  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

stem    of    the    English    walnut,    and    the    present    disposition    toward 
higher  grafting  or  budding  seems  therefore  justified  and  desirable. 

Grafting  and  Budding  the  Mulberry. 

What  is  the  most  approved  manner  of  grafting  mulberry  trees f  Am 
told  that  they  are  very  difficult  to  successfully  graft. 

Most  propagators  find  the  mulberry  difficult  by  ordinary  top 
and  cleft  grafting  methods.  A  flute  or  ring  graft  or  bud  does  well 
on  small  seedlings — that  is,  removing  a  ring  or  cylinder  of  the  bark 
from  the  stock  and  putting  in  its  place  a  cylinder  from  the  variety 
desired,  cut  to  fit  accurately.  For  large  trees  this  would  have  to 
be  done  on  young  shoots  forced  out  by  cutting  back  the  main 
branches,  but  when  this  is  done  ordinary  shield  budding  in  these 
new  shoots  would  give  good  results.  Cut  back  the  trees  now  and 
bud  in  the  new  shoots  in  July  or  August. 

Hardiness  of  Hybrid  Berries. 

How  much  cold  zvill  Phenomenal,  Himalaya  and  Mammoth  blackberries 
stand  in  zvinterF  Is  it  safe  to  plant  where  the  temperature  goes  below 
32  degrees  f 

These  berries  are  hardy  to  zero  at  least,  for  they  are  grown  in 
northern  parts  of  this  coast  where  they  get  such  a  touch  once  in  a 
while.  They  have  also  endured  low  temperatures  in  the  central 
continental  plateau  States  and  eastward.  Whether  they  can  endure 
the  lowest  temperatures  of  the  winter-killing  regions  of  the  northern 
border  cannot  be  determined  in  California,  for  we  do  not  have  the 
conditions  for  such  tests.  The  berries  are  very  hardy  while  dor- 
mant, and  probably  their  value  in  colder  regions  would  depend  rather 
more  upon  their  disposition  to  remain  dormant  than  upon  what  they 
can  endure  when  in  that  condition. 

Pruning  Himalayas. 

Shall  the  old  wood  be  cut  away  in  pruning  Himalayas? 

All  the  old  wood  which  has  borne  fruit  should  be  cut  out  in  the 
fall  and  new  shoots  reduced  to  three  or  four  from  each  root,  and 
these  three  or  four  shoots  should  be  shortened  to  a  length  of  ten 
or  twelve  feet  and  be  trained  to  a  trellis  or  fence,  or  some  other 
suitable  support.  Vines  which  are  allowed  to  grow  riotously  as  they 
will,  are  apt  to  be  deficient  in  fruit  bearing. 

Strawberries  with  Perfect  Flowers. 

Has  Longworth  Prolific  an  imperfect  bloom?  I  have  Longworths  in 
hearing  which  apparently  are  perfect.  Is  there  another  strain  of  Long- 
worth  that  are  not  self-fertilising? 

The  Longworth  Prolific  strawberry  has  both  staminate  and  pis- 
tillate  elements.      Possibly   some    other    variety,    because     of   its    resem- 


Fruit  Growing  71 

blance  to  Longworth  and  the  popularity  of  it,  may  have  been  wrongly 
given  its  name.  Most  of  the  varieties  which  are  largely  grown  in 
California  are  perfect  in  blossom,  though  some  of  the  newer  varieties 
need  association  with  pollinizers. 

Pruning   Loganberries. 

Should  the  neiv  shoots  of  Loganberry  vines,  which  come  out  in  the 
spring,  be  left  or  cut  aivayf  If  cut,  will  more  shoots  put  out  in  the  fall 
and  be  sufficient  for  the  next  year's  crop? 

The  Loganberry  shoots  which  are  growing  should  be  carefully 
trained  and  preserved  for  next  year's  fruiting.  The  old  canes  should 
be  cut  away  at  the  base  after  the  fruit  is  gathered.  The  plant  bears 
each  year  upon  the  wood  which  grew  the  previous  summer. 

Strawberry  Planting. 

Should  I  plant  strawberries  in  the  spring  or  fall? 

Whether  it  is  wise  to  plant  strawberry  plants  in  the  fall  depends 
on  several  things,  such  as  getting  the  ground  in  the  very  best  of 
condition,  abundance  of  water  at  all  times,  splendidly  rooted  plants, 
and  cool  weather  (which  is  very  rare  at  the  time  plants  are  to  be 
planted,  August  and  September).  Plants  may  be  taken  with  balls 
of  earth  around  the  roots,  and  water  poured  in  the  hole  that  re- 
ceives the  plant.  After  planting,  each  plant  should  be  shaded  from 
the  sun;  after  this  the  ditches  must  be  kept  full  of  water  so  the 
moisture  will  rise  to  the  surface;  this  must  be  done  till  the  plant 
starts  growth.  This  method  can  only  be  used  in  small  plantings, 
as  it  is  too  expensive  for  large  plantings,  as  is  also  the  potted-plant 
method  where  each  plant  is  grown  in  a  small  pot  and  transplanted 
by  dumping  out  the  earth  as  a  ball  with  the  plant  and  putting 
directly  in  the  ground.  From  potted  plants,  set  out  in  the  fall,  one 
may  count  on  a  fine  crop  of  berries  the  following  spring.  Straw- 
berry plants  are  never  dormant  till  midwinter,  and  there  is  no  plant 
more  difficult  to  transplant  when  roots  are  disturbed  in  the  hot  season, 
which  usually  prevails  in  the  interior  valleys  of  California.  To  have 
a  long-lived  strawberry  field  and  to  get  best  results,  planting  must 
be  done  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  put  in  best  condi- 
tion to  receive  plants.  From  this  a  fall  crop  can  be  expected. — Answer 
by  Tribble  Bros.,  Elk  Grove. 

Blackberries  for  Dr3nng  Only. 

What  variety  of  blackberries  or  raspberries  are  the  best  for  drying 
purposes?  Are  berries  successfully  dried  in  evaporators?  This  is  a 
natural  berry  country.  Wild  blackberries  are  a  zvonder  here.  Trans- 
portation facilities  do  not  allozu  raising  for  the  city  market.  In  your 
opinion,  zvould  the  planting  of  ten  acres  in  berries  for  drying  be  a  success? 

The  blackberries  chiefly  grown  in  California  are  the  Lawton, 
Crandall    and    the    Mammoth.      The    raspberry    chiefly   grown    is    the 


72  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Cuthbert.  There  are  very  few  of  these  berries  dried.  It  would  be 
better  to  dry  them  in  an  evaporator  than  in  the  sun,  but  little  of  it 
is  done  in  this  State.-  It  is  doubtful  whether  it  would  pay  to  plant 
blackberries  for  drying  only,  because  there  is  such  a  large  product 
now  in  various  places  where  the  berries  are  either  sold  fresh  or  sold 
to  the  cannery,  and  drying  is  only  done  for  the  purpose  of  saving 
the  crop  if  the  prices  for  the  other  uses  are  not  satisfactory.  To 
grow  especially  for  drying  would  give  you  only  one  chance  of  selling 
to  advantage,  and  that  the  poorest. 

Planting  Bush  Fruits. 

What  is  the  best  time  to  set  out  blackberries  and  Loganberries? 

Any  time  after  the  soil  is  thoroughly  wet  down  and  you  can 
get  good,  mature  and  dormant  plants  for  transplanting.  This  may 
be  as  early  as  November  and  may  continue  until  February  or  later 
in  some  places. 

Growing  Strawberry  Plants. 

In  a  patch  of  strawberries  planted  this  spring,  is  it  advisable  to  cut 
off  runners  or  root  some  of  them? 

In  planting  strawberries  in  matted  rows,  it  is  usual  to  allow  a 
few  runners  to  take  root  and  thus  fill  the  row.  It  is  the  judgment 
of  plant  growers  that  plants  for  sale  should  not  be  produced  in  this 
way,  but  should  be  grown  from  plants  specially  kept  for  that  purpose. 

Strawberries  in  Succession. 

Is  there  any  reason,  in  strawberry  culture,  when  the  vines  are  re- 
moved at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year,  why  the  ground  may  not  bs 
thoroughly  plowed  and  again  planted   to  strawberries? 

It  is  theoretically  possible  to  grow  strawberries  continuously  on 
the  same  land  by  proper  fertilization  and  irrigation.  Practically,  the 
objection  is  that  certain  diseases  and  injurious  insects  may  multiply 
in  the  land,  and  this  is  the  chief  reason  why  new  plantations  are  put 
on  new  land  and  the  old  land  used  for  a  time  for  beans  or  some  root 
crop,  so  that  the  soil  may  be  cleaned  and  refreshed  by  rotation  and 
by  the  possibility  of  deeper  tillage. 

Limitations  on  Gooseberries. 

Why  is  it  that  gooseberries  are  not  grown  more  in  California?  Is 
there  any  reason,  climatic  or  other,  zvhy  the  gooseberry  should  not  be 
as   successfully  grown   in   California   as   elsezvhere? 

There  are  two  reasons.  First,  the  gooseberry  does  not  like 
interior  valleys,  although  with  proper  protection  from  mildew  or  by 
growing  resistant  varieties,  good  fruit  can  be  had  in  coast  or  moun- 
tain valleys.  Second,  practically  no  one  cares  for  a  ripe  gooseberry 
in  a  country  where  so  many  other  fruits  are  grown,  and  the  demand 
is  for  green  gooseberries  for  pies  and  sauce,  and  that  is  very  easily 
oversupplied. 


Fruit  Growing  73 

Dry  Farming  with  Grapes. 

/  have  heard  that  they  are  f^hiiitiiii;  Muscat  grapes  on  the  dry  farm- 
ing plan.     IV ill  it  be  successful/ 

Grapes  have  been  grown  in  California  on  the  dry  farming  plan 
ever  since  Americans  came  60  years  ago.  Grapes  can  be  successfully 
grown  by  thorough  cultivation  for  moisture  retention,  .  providing 
the  rainfall  is  sufficient  to  carry  the  plant  when  it  is  conserved  by 
the  most  thorough  and  frequent  cultivation.  Unless  this  rainfall  is 
adequate,  no  amount  of  cultivation  will  make  grape  vines  succeed, 
because  even  the  best  cultivation  produces  no  moisture,  but  only 
conserves  a  part  of  that  which  falls  from  the  clouds.  Whether  grapes 
will  do  depends,  first,  upon  what  the  rainfall  is;  second,  upon 
whether  the  soil  is  retentive;  third,  upon  whether  you  cultivate  in 
such  a  way  as  to  enable  the  soil  to  exercise  its  maximum  rctcntive- 
ness.  These  are  matters  which  cannot  be  determined  theoretically — 
they  require  actual  test. 

Cutting  Back  Frosted  Vine  Canes. 

Vines  have  been  badly  injured  by  the  late  frosts,  especially  the 
young  vines  which  were  out  the  most.  Is  there  anything  to  be  done 
with  the  injured  shoots  now  on  the  vines  so  as  to  help  the  prospects 
of  a  crop? 

If  shoots  are  only  lightly  frosted  they  should  be  cut  off  at  once 
as  low  as  you  can  detect  injury.  This  may  save  the  lower  parts  of 
the  shoot,  from  which  a  later  growth  can  be  made.  Frosted  parts 
ferment  and  carry  destruction  downward,  and  therefore  should  be 
disposed  of  as  soon  as  possible.  Where  vines  have  run  out  con- 
siderably and  badly  frosted,  the  best  practice  usually  is  to  strip  of?  the 
frozen  shoots  so  as  to  get  rid  of  the  dormant  buds  at  the  base,  which 
often  give  sterile  shoots.  A  new  break  of  canes  from  other  buds  is 
generally   more   productive. 

Dipping  Thompson  Seedless. 

What  is  the  process  of  dipping  and  bleaching  Thompson  seedless 
grapes? 

One  recipe  for  dipped  raisins  is  as  follows:  One  quart  olive 
oil;  ^-pound  Greenbank  soda  and  3  quarts  water  are  made  into 
an  emulsion,  and  then  reduced  with  10  gallons  water  in  the  dipping 
tank,  adding  more  soda  to  get  lye-strength  enough  to  cut  the  skins, 
and  more  soda  has  to  be  added  from  time  to  time  to  keep  up  the 
strength.  The  grapes  are  dipped  in  this  solution  and  sulphured  to 
the  proper  color.  This  is  the  general  outline  of  the  process.  The 
ability  to  use  it  well  can  only  be  attained  by  experience  and  close  ob- 
servation. 

The  Zante  Currant. 

Is  the  currant  that  grozvs  in  the  United  States  in  any  way  related 
to  the  currant  that  grows  in  Greece?  If  so,  could  it  be  cured  like  the 
currant  that  comes  from  Greece? 


74  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

The  dried  currants  of  commerce  are  made  in  Greece  and  in 
California  (to  a  slight  extent)  from  the  grape  known  as  the  grape  of 
Corinth.  They  are  not  made  from  the  bush  currant  which  is  gen- 
erally grown  in  the  United  States,  and  the  two  plants  are  not  in 
any  way  related. 

Grape  Vines  for  an  Arbor. 

Hozv  shall  I  prune  grape  vines,  viz:  Tokay,  Black  Cornichon,  Mus- 
cat, Thompson  Seedless,  Rose  of  Peru,  planted  for  a  grape  arbor? 

You  can  grow  all  the  vines  you  mention  with  high  stumps 
reaching  part  way  or  to  the  top  of  the  arbor  as  you  desire  side  or 
top  shade  or  both.  You  can  also  grow  them  with  permanent  side 
branches  on  the  side  slats  of  the  arbor  if  you  desire.  Each  winter 
pruning  would  consist  in  cutting  back  all  the  previous  summer's 
growth  to  a  few  buds  from  which  new  canes  will  grow  for  shade  or 
fruiting,  or  you  can  work  on  the  renewal  system,  keeping  some  of 
these  canes  long  for  quick  foliage  and  more  fruit  perhaps  and  cut- 
ting some  of  them  short  to  grow  new  wood  for  the  following  year's 
service,  as   they  often   do   in  growing   Eastern   grapes. 

Pruning  Old  Vines. 

/  have  some  Muscat  grape  vines  30  years  old.  Can  I  chop  off 
most  of  the  old  wood  with  a  hatchet  and  thereby  bring  them  back  to 
proper   bearing? 

Not  with  a  hatchet.  If  the  vines  are  worth  keeping  at  all,  they 
are  worth  careful  cutting  with  a  saw  and  a  painting  of  all  cuts  in 
large  old  wood.  If  the  vines  have  been  neglected,  you  can  saw 
away  surplus  prongs  or  spurs,  reserving  four  or  five  of  the  best 
placed  and  most  vigorous,  and  cut  back  the  canes  of  last  summer's 
growth  to  one,  two  or  three  buds,  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
canes — the  thicker  the  canes,  the  more  buds  to  be  kept.  It  is  not 
desirable  to  cut  away  an  old  vine  to  get  a  new  start  from  the  ground, 
unless  you  wish  to  graft.  Shape  the  top  of  the  vine  as  well  as  you 
can  by  saving  the  best  of  the  old  growth. 

Topping  Grape  Vines. 

Is  topping  grape  Z'iiics  desirable!'' 

Topping  of  vines  is  in  all  cases  more  or  less  weakening.  The 
more  foliage  that  is  removed,  the  more  weakening  it  is.  Vines, 
therefore,  which  are  making  a  weak  growth  from  any  cause  whatever 
can  only  be  injured  by  topping.  If  the  vines  are  exceptionally 
vigorous,  the  weakening  due  to  topping  may  be  an  advantage  by 
making  them  more  fruitful.  The  topping,  however,  must  be  done 
with  discretion.  Early  topping  in  May  is  much  more  effective  and 
less  weakening  than  later  topping  in  June.  Very  early  topping  be- 
fore blossoming  helps  the  setting  of  the  blossoms.  Topping  in 
general  increases  the  size  of  the  berries. 


Fruit  Growing  75 

Bleeding  Vines. 

Will   pruning  grape  vines  when    tliey   bleed   injure   tlicniF 

It   has   been   demonstrated   not   to   be   of   any   measnrable    injury. 

Vines  and  Scant  Moisture. 

Would  it  be  -well  to  sucker  vines  and  take  also  some  bearing  canes 
off,  or  in  a  dry  year  zvill  they  mature  properly  as  in  other  years  if  the 
ground  is  in  good  condition? 

Vines  usually  bear  drouth-stress  better  tlian  bearing  fruit  trees. 
On  soils  of  good  depth  and  retentivcncss,  they  are  likely  to  give 
good  crops  in  a  dry  year  with  thorough  cultivation;  still,  lightening 
the  burden  of  the  vihes  is  rational.  Suckering  and  cutting  away 
second-crop  efiforts  should  be  done.  Whether  you  need  to  reduce 
the  first  crop  can  be  told  better  by  the  looks  of  the  vines  later  in 
the  season. 

Sulphuring  for  Mildew. 

For  tiuo  years  I  have  not  sulphured  my  vineyard  and  had  no  mildew. 
My  vines  seem  as  healthy  and  thrifty  as  any  of  the  neighbors'  that  were 
duly   sulphured.     Have   I   lost   anything   by  not  sulphuring? 

Certainly  not.  In  sections  where  mildew  is  practically  sure  to 
come,  sulphur  should  be  used  regularly  as  a  preventive  without  waiting 
for  the  appearance  of  the  disease.  There  are,  however,  many  loca- 
tions, especially  in  the  interior  valley,  where  the  occurrence  of  mildew 
is  rare  in  sufficient  volume  to  do  appreciable  harm,  and  then  sulphur- 
ing should  depend  upon  the  weather,  which  favors  mildew  or  other- 
wise. But  be  always  on  the  watch  and  have  everything  ready  to 
sulphur  immediately,  also  learn  to  recognize  the  conditions  under 
which  appearances  of  mildew  become  a  menace. 

Grape  Sugar  in  Canned  Grapes. 

Hozij  can  I  prevent  the  formation  of  grape  sugar  in  canned  grapes? 

Take  care  that  the  syrup  is  of  the  same  density  as  the  juice 
of  the  grape  when  the  fruit  and  the  juice  are  placed  together  in  the 
can.  The  density  of  the  syrup  and  the  juice  are,  of  course,  to  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  the  spindle,  the  same  arrangement  employed 
for  determining  when  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  grape  juice  is 
right  for  raisin-making  or  for  wine-making.  Whatever  the  density 
of  the  juice,  make  the  syrup  the  same  by  the  use  of  the  right  amount 
of  sugar. 


PART  II.    VEGETABLE  GROWING 


California  Grown   Seed. 

Which  are  the  best  garden  seeds  to  use,  those  raised  in  Ohio  and 
the  East  or  those  raised  in  Washington  and  Oregon  or  those  raised 
in   this  State f 

It  has  been  definitely  shown  by  experience  and  experiment  that 
is  does  not  inatter  much  where  the  seed  comes  from,  providing  it 
is  well  grown  and  good  of  its  kind.  There  is  no  such  advantage  in 
changing  seed  from  one  locality  to  another  as  is  commonly  supposed. 
Besides,  it  is  now  very  difficult  to  tell  positively  where  seed  is  grown, 
because  California  wholesale  seeds  are  retailed  in  all  the  States  you 
mention,  and  the  contents  of  many  small  packets  of  seeds  distributed 
in  California  went  first  of  all  from  California  to  the  Eastern  re- 
tailers, who  advertise  and  sell   them   everywhere. 

Cloth  for  Hotbeds. 

Would  cloth  do  to  cover  a  hotbox  to  raise  lettuce,  radishes,  etc.,  for 
winter  use  where  lue  get  a  very  heavy  rainfall? 

Yes,  if  you  make  the  cloth  waterproof  for  its  own  preservation 
from  mildew  and  other  agencies  of  decay.  The  following  recipe  for 
waterproofing  cloth  is  taken  from  our  book  on  "California  Vegetables": 
Soften  43^  ounces  of  glue  in  8^  pints  of  water,  cold  at  first;  then 
dissolve  in,  say,  a  washboiler  full  (6  gallons)  of  warm  water,  with 
2j/2  ounces  of  hard  soap;  put  in  the  cloth  and  boil  for  an  hour, 
wring  and  dry;  then  prepare  a  bath  of  a  pound  of  alum  and  a  pound 
of  salt,  soak  the  prepared  cloth  in  it  for  a  couple  of  hours,  rinse 
with  clear  water  and  dry.  One  gallon  of  the  glue  solution  will  soak 
about  ten  yards  of  cloth.  This  cloth  has  been  used  in  southern 
California  for  several  years  without  inildewing,  and  it  will  hold  water 
by  the  pailful.  Where  the  rain  is  heavy  and  frequent,  the  cloth 
should  be  well  supported  by  slats  and  given  slope  to  shed  water 
quickly.  Of  course,  this  is  only  a  makeshift.  Glass  would  be  more 
satisfactory  and  durable  in  a  region  of  much  cloudiness  and  scant 
sunshine;  the  greater  illumination  through  glass  will  make  for  the 
greater  health  and  growth  of  the  plants. 

Soil  for  Vegetables. 

Some  of  my  soil  bakes  and  hardens  quickly  after  irrigation,  but 
I  have  an  acre  or  so  of  sandy  soil.  Would  iliis  be  best  for  garden  truck 
and  berries? 


Vegetable  Growing  11 

Sandy,  loamy  soil  is  better  than  the  heavy  soil  for  vegetables  and 
berries,  if  moisture  is  kept  right,  because  it  can  be  more  easily  cul- 
tivated and  takes  water  without  losing  the  friable  condition  which  is 
so  desirable.  A  heavier  soil  can,  however,  be  improved  by  the  free 
use  of  stable  manure  or  by  the  addition  of  sand,  or  by  the  use  of  one 
or  more  applications  of  lime  at  the  rate  of  500  pounds  to  the  acre, 
as  may  be  required — all  these  operations  making  the  soil  more  loamy 
and  more  easily  liandled. 

Vegetables  in  a  Cold,  Dark  Draft. 

What  vegetables  zvill  thrive  in  localities  zcliere  the  sun  shines  only 
part  of  the  day?  I  have  a  space  in  my  garden  that  gets  the  sun  only 
between  the  hours  of  ii  and  5,  thereabouts;  I  would  like  to  utilize 
those  places  for  vegetables  if  any  particular  kind  zuill  grow  under  such 
conditions.  The  soil  apparently  is  good,  of  a  sandy  nature,  with  some 
ham.     The  place  is  high  and  subject  to  much  zcind. 

You  can  only  definitely  determine  by  actual  trial  what  vegetables 
will  be  satisfactory  under  the  shade  conditions  which  you  describe. 
You. may  get  good  results  from  lettuces,  radishes,  beets,  peas,  top 
onions,  and  many  other  things  which  do  well  at  rather  a  low  tem- 
perature, while  tomatoes,  peppers,  eggplant,  etc.,  would  probably  be 
worthless.  Your  soil  is  probably  satisfactory  and  you  can  easily 
keep  the  moisture  right  by  being  careful  not  to  use  as  much  water 
as  you  would  in  open  sunshine.  The  behavior  of  the  plants  will  be 
directly  dependent  upon  the  temperature  and  the  sunshine  which  they 
receive  under  the  conditions  described. 

Jesusalem  Artichokes. 

What  is  the  best  time  for  planting  Jerusalem  artichokes? 

Jerusalem  artichoke  tubers  are  planted  in  the  spring  after  the 
ground  has  become  warm  and  the  heavy  frosts  are  over.  The  planting 
may  be  done  in  rows  far  enough  apart  for  cultivation,  the  tubers 
being  set  about  a  foot  apart  in  the  row.  This  tuber  grows  like  a 
potato,  but  is  more  delicate  than  the  potato.  It  is  inclined  to  decay 
when  out  of  the  ground,  but  will  not  start  growth  as  early  as  the 
potato,  and  therefore  it  is  not  desirable  to  start  it  early  in  the 
winter  if  the  winters  are  cold  and  the  ground  apt  to  be  very  wet. 
Do  not  cut  the  tubers  for  seed  as  you  would  potatoes. 

Globe  Artichokes. 

I  have  land  that  will  grow  magnificent  artichokes.  Two  plants  last 
year  (variety  unknoivn)  produced  heavy  crops  of  buds,  but  the  scales 
opened  too  zvide  and  allozved  the  center  to  become  fibrous  and  were 
unsalable.  Is  this  due  to  climate,  lack  of  suflicient  zvatcr,  or  to  not 
having  the  right  variety? 

Many  artichokes  which  are  planted  should  really  be  put  in  the 
ornamental  class — they  are  either  a  reversion  from  a  wilder  type  in 


78  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

plants  grown  from  the  seed  or  they  never  have  been  good.  In  order 
to  determine  which  varieties  you  had  better  grow  on  a  large  scale, 
it  is  desirable  to  get  a  few  plants  of  the  different  varieties  as  offered 
by  seedmen.  In  this  way  you  would  find  out  just  what  are  con- 
sidered best  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  and  propagate  largely  the 
ones  which  are  best  worth  to  you.  By  subdivision  of  the  roots  you 
get  exactly  the  same  type  in  any  quantity  you  desire — ruling  out 
undesirable  variations  likely  to  appear  in  seedlings. 

Artichoke  Growing. 

Is  the  Globe  artichoke  a  profitable  crop  to  raise  commercially? 
Near  Pescadero  a  company  has  been  formed  to  raise  it  for  Eastern 
shipment.  Is  it  a  very  profitable  crop  to  raise?  Are  certain  varieties 
worthless? 

Considerable  quantities  of  Globe  artichokes  are  grown  in  south- 
ern and  central  California  for  Eastern  shipment.  There  is  a  limit  to 
the  amount  which  can  be  profitably  shipped,  because  people  generally, 
at  the  East,  do  not  know  the  Globe  artichoke  and  how  to  eat  it,  but 
more  of  them  are  learning  the  desirability  of  it  every  year.  There 
are  species  which  are  only  ornamental,  as  a  bad  weed. 

Asparagus  Growing. 

What  is  the  average  commercial  yield  of  asparagus  to  the  acre  in 
California?  Also,  how  long  it  takes  asparagus  to  come  into  full  bearing, 
and  what  yield  could  be  expected  after  two  years'  growth?  Is  asparagus 
resistant  to   moderate  quantities  of  alkali  in  the  soil? 

The  yield  of  asparagus  is  from  one  to  four  tons  of  marketable 
shoots  per  acre,  according  to  age  and  thrift  of  plants,  etc.,  the  largest 
yields  being  on  the  peat  lands  of  the  river  islands.  On  suitable  lands 
one  ought  to  get  at  least  two  tons  per  acre.  Roots  may  yield  a  few 
days'  cuttings  during  their  second  year  in  permanent  place;  the  third 
year  they  will  stand  much  more  cutting,  and  for  several  years  after 
that  will  be  in  full  yielding.  Asparagus  enjoys  a  little  salt  in  the 
land,  but  one  would  not  select  what  is  ordinarily  called  "alkali  land" 
for  growing  it — not  only  because  of  the  alkali  but  because  of  the  soil 
character  which  it  induces. 

Bean  Growing. 

We  have  a  small  Held  of  beans,  and  ivould  like  to  know  zvJiich  is 
the  best  and  most  profitable  way  to  crop  them. 

Cultivate  the  beans  so  that  the  plants  may  have  plenty  of  mois- 
ture to  fill  the  pods,  then  let  them  dry  and  die.  Gather  the  dry 
plants  before  the  pods  open  much,  and  let  them  dry  on  a  clean, 
smooth  piece  of  ground  or  on  the  barn  floor.  When  they  are  well 
dried,  thresh  with  a  flail,  rake  ofif  the  straw,  sweep  up  the  beans  and 
clean  by  winnowing  in  the  wind  or  with  a  fanning  mill  with  suitable 
screens. 


Vegetable  Growing  79 

Hoeing  Beans. 

Should  beans  be  hoed  while  the  dew  is  on  the  vine? 

Beans  had  better  be  hoed  with  the  dew  on  them  than  not  hoed 
at  all.  The  only  objection  to  hoeing  with  the  dew  on  is  that  the 
hoer  will  get  his  feet  wet,  the  vines  will  become  untidy  from  adher- 
ing dust,  with  a  possible  chance  of  the  leaves  becoming  less  effect- 
ive and  the  pollination  of  the  blossom  rendered  less  liable  to  occur. 

Beans  as  Nitrogen  Gatherers. 

/  groiv  string  beans  in  my  rotation  to  restore  nitrogen,  but  I  see  it 
stated  that  not  all  beans  are  valuable  for  this  purpose.  Arc  the  common 
bush  varieties  nitrogen  gatherers? 

Probably  they  are  all  doing  it  in  various  degrees.  Pull  up  or 
dig  up  a  few  plants  when  growing  actively,  not  too  early  nor  too 
late  in  the  season,  and  look  for  nodules  on  the  roots.  Number  and 
size  considered  together  will  measure  their  activity  in  this  line  in 
your   soil. 

Bean  Growing. 

/  want  to  plant  beans  of  different  varieties.  The  land  is  rich,  black 
loam  with  a  little  sand.  When  is  the  best  time  to  plant?  If  planted 
early,  what  shall  we  do  to  keep  the  weevils  out  of  them? 

It  is  desirable  to  plant  beans  as  early  as  you  can  without  en- 
countering danger  of  frost  killing.  No  particular  date  can  be  men- 
tioned for  planting  because  the  dates  will  vary  in  different  locations 
according  to  the  beginning  of  the  frost-free  period.  The  best  way 
to  escape  weevil  is  to  sell  most  of  the  beans  as  soon  as  harvested, 
treating  those  which  you  retain  for  seed,  or  for  your  own  use,  with 
bisulphide  of  carbon  vapor  or  by  gently  heating  to  a  temperature 
not  above  130  degrees,  which,  of  course,  must  be  done  carefully  with 
an  accurate  thermometer  so  as  not  to  injure  germinating  power. 
Unless  you  know  that  beans  do  well  in  your  locality,  it  would  be 
wise  to  plant  a  small  area  at  first,  because  beans  are  somewhat  par- 
ticular in  their  choice  of  location  in  California,  and  one  should  have 
practical  demonstration  of  bearing  before  risking  much  upon  the  crop. 

The  Yard-Long  Bean. 

/  wish  to  ask  about  the  very  long  bean  which  I  think  was  intro- 
duced from  China  into  California.  I  remember  seeing  one  vine  zvhcn 
I  was  living  in  California  tvhich  I  think  must  have  been  20  or  30  feet 
long  and  had  hundreds  of  pods  and  each  of  these  pods  zvere  from  2  to 
S  feet  long.  Are  these  beans  generally  considered  eatable?  Would  they 
be  at  all  suitable  to  get  as  a  field  bean  which  the  hogs  eat? 

You  probably  refer  to  the  "yard-long"  pole  bean.  It  is  a  world 
variety  and  may  have  come  to  California  from  China  as  you  suggest, 
but  it  has  also  been  well  known  for  generations  in  Europe  and  was 
brought  thence  to  the  Eastern  States  at  some  early  date.     It  is  gen- 


•go  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

erally  accounted  as  an  unimportant  species  and  certainly  has  not 
risen  to  commercial  account  in  California.  The  beans  are  edible  and 
the  whole  plant  available  for  stock  feeding,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
but  that  the  growth  of  some  of  the  cowpeas  would  be  preferable  as 
a  summer  field  crop  for  hog  pasture. 

Why  the  Beans  are  Waiting. 

Can  you  tell  inc  zvhy  pink  beans  zuhich  zvcrc  planted  early  in  Merced 
county,  irrigated  four  times,  hoed  four  times  and  cultivated,  have  no 
beans'  on   them?     The  vines  look  finely. 

Probably  because  you  had  too  much  hot,  dry  wind  at  the  bloom- 
ing. This  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  troubles  with  beans  in  the 
hot  valley,  but  the  pink  bean  resists  it  better  than  other  varieties. 
As  the  heat  moderates  you  are  likely  to  get  blossoms  which  will 
come  through  and  form  pods,  and  then  the  crop  will  depend  upon 
how  long  frost  is  postponed.  You  have  also  treated  the  plants  a 
little  too  well  with  water  and  cultivation.  You  had  better  let  them 
feel  the  pinch  of  poverty  a  little  now;  they  will  be  more  likely  to 
go   to  work. 

Blackeye  Beans. 

What  is  the  best  zvay  to  prepare  land  for  Black-eye  beansf  How 
much  seed  is  required  per  acre,  and  zvhat  is  the  estimated  cost  of  groiv- 
ing  them?     The  soil  is  a  zvell-drained  clay  loam. 

The  cost  of  growing  is  not  particularly  different  from  other 
beans,  and  will  vary,  of  course,  according  to  the  capacity  and  ef- 
ficiency of  the  plows,  harrows,  teams,  tractors,  men,  etc.  Every 
man  has  to  figure  that  according  to  his  conditions  and  methods  of 
turning  and  fining  the  land.  Sow  40  pounds  per  acre  in  drills  3  feet 
apart,  and  cultivate  as  long  as  you  can  without  injuring  the  vines 
too  much.  Sowing  must  of  course  be  done  late,  after  the  ground 
is  warm  and  danger  of  frost  is  past,  though  the  plowing  and  har- 
rowing should  be  done  earlier  than  that. 

Blackeye  Beans  are  Cow  Peas. 

I  sent  for  some  Blackeye  cozv  peas;  they  look  like  Blackeye  beans. 
Am  sending  you  a  sample  of  what  I  got.     What  are  they? 

Yes,  they  are  in  the  cow  pea  group,  but  there  are  other  cow  peas 
which  would  not  be  recognized  as  having  any  relation  to  them.  All 
cow  peas  are,  however,  beans,  and  they  have  not  much  use  for  frost. 
They  are  not  hardy  like  the  true  pea  group. 

Growing  Horse  Beans. 

Does  the  soil  need  to  be  inoculated  for  horse  beans?  I  intend  to 
plant  -five  acres  about  January  i,  on  the  valley  border  in  Placer  county 
and  they  get  heavy  frost  in  the  morning.  Docs  frost  hurt  them?  Hozv 
shall  I  plant  them? 


Vegetable  Growing  '81 

California  experience  is  that  horse  beans  grow  readily  without 
inoculation  of  the  seed.  Quite  a  good  growth  of  the  plant  is  being 
secured  in  many  parts  of  the  State,  particularly  in  the  coast  region 
where  the  plant  seems  to  thrive  best.  It  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of 
the  bean  family  and  will  endure  light  frost.  Mow  hardy  it  will  prove 
in  your  place  could  be  told  only  by  a  local  experiment.  Whether 
it  can  be  planted  after  frost  danger  is  over,  as  corn  is,  and  make 
satisfactory  growth  and  product  in  the  dry  heat  of  the  interior  sum- 
mer must  also  be  determined   by  experience. 

The  horse  bean  is  a  tall  growing,  upright  plant  which  is  suc- 
cessfully grown  in  rows  far  enough  apart  for  cultivation,  say  about 
2  1-2  feet,  the  seed  dropped  thinly  so  that  the  plants  will  stand  from 
6  inches  to  1  foot  apart  in  the  row. 

Growing  Castor  Beans. 

Give  information  on  the  castor  oil  bean;  the  kind  of  bean  best  to 
plant,  zvhen  to  plant  and  harvest,  the  best  soil,  and  where  one  can  market 
them. 

Castor  bean  growing  has  been  undertaken  from  time  to  time 
since  1860  in  various  parts  of  California.  There  is  no  difficulty  about 
getting  a  satisfactory  growth  of  the  plant  in  parts  of  the  State  where 
moisture  enough  can  be  depended  upon.  Although  the  growing  of 
beans  is  easy  enough,  the  harvesting  is  a  difficult  proposition,  be- 
cause in  California  the  clusters  ripen  from  time  to  time,  have  to  be 
gathered  by  hand,  to  be  put  in  the  sun  to  dry,  and  finally  threshed 
when  they  are  popping  properly.  The  low  price,  in  connection  with 
the  amount  of  hand  work  which  has  to  be  done  upon  the  crop,  has 
removed  all  the  attractions  for  California  growers.  There  is  also, 
some  years,  an  excess  of  production  in  the  central  West,  which 
causes  prices  to  fall  and  makes  it  still  more  impracticable  to  make 
money  from  the  crop  with  the  ordinary  rates  of  labor.  The  oil  can- 
not be  economically  extracted  except  by  the  aid  of  the  most  effect- 
ive machinery  and  a  well  equipped  establishment.  Oil-making  in 
the  rude  way  in  which  it  is  conducted  in  India  would  certainly  not 
be   profitable  here. 

Legume   Seed   Inoculation, 

Is  there  any  virtue  in  inoculating  plants  tvith  the  bacteria  that  some 
seed  arms  offer?    I  refer  to  such  plants  as  peas  and  beans. 

If  the  land  is  yielding  good  crops  of  these  plants  and  the  roots 
are  noduled,  it  does  not  need  addition  of  germs.  If  the  growth  is 
scant  even  when  there  is  enough  moisture  present  and  the  roots  are 
free  from  nodules,  the  presumption  is  that  germs  should  be  added. 
Speaking  generally,  added  germs  are  not  needed  in  California  be- 
cause our  great  legume  crops  are  made  without  inoculation.  Pre- 
sumably, burr  clover  and  our  host  of  native  legumes  have  already 
charged  the  soil  with  them.  If,  however,  such  plants  do  not  do 
well,  try  inoculation  by  all  means,  to  see  if  absence  of  germs  is  the 
reason   for   such   failure   or  whether  you  must  look  for  some  other 


82  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

reason.  If  the  results  are  satisfactory,  you  may  have  made  a  great 
gain  by  introduction  of  desirable  soil  organisms  which  you  can  ex- 
tend as  you  like  by  the  distribution  of  the  germ-laden  soil  from  the 
areas  which  have  been  given  that  character  by  inoculation  of  the 
seed. 

Beans  on  Irrigated  Mesas. 

Would  zvhite  and  pink  beans  do  zvell  on  the  red  orange  land  at 
Palermo  with  plenty  of  zvatcr?  I  have  in  mind  hill  land,  the  hills  being 
very  red  and  running  into  a  dark  soil  in  the  lower  part.  How  many 
beans  could  I  get  per  acre? 

Probably  nothing  would  be  better  for  the  land  or  for  the  future 
needs  of  the  trees  than  to  grow  beans.  An  average  crop  of  beans, 
for  the  whole  State  and  all  kinds  of  beans,  is  about  one  ton  to  the 
acre.  What  you  will  get  by  irrigation  on  hot  uplands  we  do  not 
know.  Beans  do  not  like  dry  heat,  even  if  the  soil  moisture  is  ade- 
quate. They  do  not  fructify  well  even  when  they  grow  well.  The 
pink  bean  does  best  under  such  conditions.  All  beans,  except  horse 
beans,  must  be  brought  up  after  frost  dangers  are  all  over,  and  this 
brings  them  into  high  heat  almost  from  the  start  in  such  a  place  as 
you  mention.  You  should  find  out  locally  how  beans  perform  under 
such  conditions  as  you  have,  before  undertaking  much  investment. 

Leases  for  Sugar  Beets. 

/  have  land  in  Yolo  county  that  has  made  an  average  yield  yearly 
of  from  12  to  l8  sacks  of  wheat  and  barley.  A  beet  sugar  company 
proposes  renting  this  land  and  plant  it  to  sugar  beets  and  I  would  prefer 
not  to  consider  any  agreement  of  less  than  five  years'  duration.  The 
particular  point  that  I  would  like  to  have  you  advise  me  on  is  the  effect 
sugar  beet  has  upon  the  soil. 

You  certainly  have  good  soil,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  a  sugar 
company  should  desire  to  rent  it  for  its  purposes.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  great  question  as  to  whether  it  would  be  desirable  to  run 
to  beets  continually  for  five  years.  Beets  make  a  strong  draft  on 
some  components  of  the  soil,  and  it  is  a  common  experience  that 
they  should  not  be  grown  year  after  year  for  a  long  period,  but 
should  take  their  place  in  a  rotation,  in  the  course  of  which  one  or 
two  crops  of  beets  should  be  followed  by  a  crop  of  grain,  and  that 
if  possible  by  a  leguminous  plant  like  alfalfa  or  an  annual  legume 
like  burr  clover  used  for  pasturage,  and  then  to  beets  again.  Beets 
improve  soil  for  grain,  because  of  the  deep  running  of  the  root,  and 
because  beet  culture  is  not  profitable  without  deep  plowing  and  con- 
tinuous summer  cultivation.  This  deepens  and  cleans  the  land  to 
the  manifest  advantage  of  the  grain  crop,  but  still  the  beet  reduces 
the  plant  food  in  the  soil  and  some  change  of  crop  should  be  made 
with  reference  to  its  restoration.  We  would  much  prefer  to  lease  it 
for  two  years  than  for  five  years  of  beet  growing. 


Vegetable  Growing  83 

Topping    Mangel  Wurzels. 

Docs  it  harm  the  mangel  zvurzcls  if  their  tops  arc  cut  off  once  a 
month? 

Removing  leaves  will  decrease  the  size  and  harden  the  tissues 
of  the  beet  root.  If  you  wish  to  grow  the  plant  for  the  top,  the 
root  will  continue  to  put  out  leaves  for  you  for  a  time;  if  you  grow 
it  for  the  size  and  quality  of  the  root,  you  need  all  the  leaf-action 
you  can  get,  therefore  do  not  reduce  the  foliage. 

Blooming  Brussels  Sprouts. 

Are  Brussels  sprouts  male  and  female?  Some  of  my  plants  are 
flowering  and  show  no  signs  of  sprouts,  while  those  that  are  not,  shozv 
some  small  eyes  at  stem  that  look  like  young  sprouts. 

Brussels  sprouts  ought  to  form  the  sprouts  without  flowering, 
just  as  a  cabbage  heads  without  flowering.  Those  plants  which  show 
flowers  have  been  stopped  by  drought  or  otherwise,  and  have  taken 
on  prematurely  the  second  stage  of  growth  which  is  productive  of 
seed  and  is  undesirable  from  the  point  of  view  of  growing  heads. 

Blanching  Celery. 

/  desire  to  know  the  different  methods  by  which  the  celery  is  bleached, 
and  particularly  whether  boards  or  other  material  other  than  earth  is 
used  for  this  purpose. 

There  is  some  blanching  of  celery  with  boards,  cloth  wrappings, 
boot-legs,  old  tiles,  sewer  pipes,  etc.,  in  market  gardens  in  different 
parts  of  the  State,  but  the  great  commercial  product  of  celery  for 
export  is  blanched  wholly  by  piling  the  light,  dry  earth  against  the 
growing  plant.  As  we  do  not  have  rains  during  the  growing  season 
and  as  the  soil  on  which  celery  is  chiefly  grown  is  particularly  coarse 
in  its  texture,  there  is  no  rusting  or  staining  from  this  method  of 
blanching.  It  shakes  out  clean  and  bright.  Conditions  which  make 
earth-blanching  undesirable  in  the  humid  region  do  not  exist  here. 

Corn  in  the  Sacramento  Valley. 

Is  it  practical  to  raise  corn  in  the  Sacramento  valley?  Are  the  soil 
and  climatic  conditions  suitable? 

The  success  of  corn  on  plains  and  uplands  in  the  Sacramento 
valley  has  not  yet  been  fully  demonstrated,  although  good  corn  is 
grown  on  river  bottom  lands,  and  it  is  possible  that  much  more  may 
be  done  with  this  grain  in  the  future  than  in  the  past.  Corn  does 
not  enjoy  the  dry  heat  of  the  plains,  and  even  when  irrigated  seems 
to  be  dissatisfied  with  it.  How  far  we  shall  succeed  in  getting  varie- 
ties which  will  endure  dry  heat  and  still  be  large  and  productive  will 
ere  long  be  determined  by  the  experiments  which  are  in  progress. 
The  old  Sacramento  valley  farmer  has  been  justified  to  some  degree 
in  his  conclusion  that  his  is  not  a  corn  country.  Still  it  may  appear 
so  later. 


84  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Plant  Corn  in  Warm  Ground. 

/  also  put  in  a  lot  of  com  and  none  of  it  came  up.  The  ground 
was  damp  and  rather  cold,  as  zvell  as  being  alkali. 

Corn  should  never  be  planted  in  cold,  wet  ground — in  fact,  very 
few  seeds  should  be.     Besides,  corn  has  no  use  for  alkali. 

Sweet  Corn  in  California. 

/  have  been  informed  that  szveet  corn  cannot  he  raised  in  this  part 
of  the  country,  on  account  of  worms  eating  the  kernels  before  the  ear 
lias  matured.     Is  there  any  method  of  overcoming  this  difficulty? 

You  have  been  correctly  informed  concerning  the  difficulty  in 
growing  sweet  corn.  Although  many  experiments  have  been  made, 
no  method  of  overcoming  this  pest  has  yet  been  demonstrated.  For 
this  reason  canning  of  corn  is  not  undertaken  in  this  State,  and  for 
the  same  reason  most  of  the  green  corn  ears  sold  in  our  markets 
have  the  tops  of  the  ears  amputated.  It  is  sometimes  possible  to 
escape  the  worm  by  planting  rather  late,  so  that  the  ears  shall  de- 
velop after  the  moth,  which  is  parent  of  the  worm,  has  deposited 
its  eggs. 

Forcing  Cucumbers. 

Give  information  on  growing  hot-house  cucumbers,  and  also  if  you 
think  it  would  pay  me  to  go  into  the  business  in  southern  California. 

Forcing  of  cucumbers  has  been  undertaken  for  a  number  of  years 
in  California  and  formerly  was  considered  unprofitable  because  cu- 
cumbers grown  in  the  open  air  in  frostless  places  came  in  before 
the  forced  product  could  be  sold  out  at  sufficiently  high  prices  to 
make  the  venture  profitable.  Recently,  however,  owing  to  our  in- 
creased population  in  cities  and  larger  demand  of  products  out  of 
season,  forcing  becomes  more  promising  and  is  worthy  of  attention. 
Forcing  of  cucumbers  in  California  can  be  done  at  very  much  less 
expense,  of  course,  than  elsewhere,  because  of  the  abundance  of 
winter  sunshine  and  the  fact  that  sufficiently  high  temperatures  can 
be  secured  in  glass  houses  with  exceedingly  little  if  any  artificial 
heat.'  The  chances  of  growing  cucumbers  out  of  season  for  ship- 
ment eastward  and  northward  can  be  discussed  with  the  officers  of 
the  California  Vegetable  Growers'  Union,  which  has  offices  and  ware- 
house in  Los  Angeles. 

Cucumber  Grov(?ing. 

/  have  a  piece  of  red  so-called  orange  land  zvhich  has  produced  ex- 
cellent wheat.  Will  you  give  information  about  its  adaptability  to  cu- 
cumbers? Are  there  pickle  factories  in  the  State  which  would  demand 
them  in  quantities,  and  is  there  much  other  demand  for  them?  About 
when  should  they  be  planted,  and  how  much  ivater  zvotild  they  need? 

The  cucumber  needs  a  retentive  soil  which  does  not  crack  and 
bake,  and  such  a  soil  is  made  by  abundance  of  organic  matter.  Your 
orange    soil,    unless    heavily    treated    with    stable    manure    and    given 


Vegetable  Growing  89' 

plenty  of  time  for  disintegration,  would  probably  give  you  distress- 
ful cucumber  plants,  if  it  has  come  right  out  of  wheat-growing.  Be- 
sides, cucumbers  do  not  like  dry  heat,  even  if  the  soil  be  kept  moist 
by  irrigation.  Oranges  will  do  well  under  conditions  not  favorable 
to  cucumbers.  Cucumber  plants  must  come  up  after  danger  of  frost 
is  over.  The  amount  of  water  they  require  depends  upon  how  moist 
the  soil  is  naturally,  and  as  the  crop  is  chiefly  grown  on  moist  river 
lands  and  around  the  bay,  it  is  chiefly  made  without  irrigation.  Such 
lands  have  a  cucumber  capacity  equal  to  the  consumption  of  the 
United  States,  probably,  and  the  pickle  factories  can  usually  get  all 
they  can  use  at  a  minipium  transportation  cost.  Large-scale  plant- 
ings should  only  be  made  by  men  who  know  the  crop  and  have  defi- 
nite information  or  contract  for  what  they  can  get  for  it. 

Ginger  in  California. 

iVe  have  ginger  roots  in  a  growing  condition  with  sprouts  and  bulbs 
growing  on  them,  but  zue  do  not  understand  hozvto  raise  the  plants. 

Growing  ginger  in  California  in  a  commercial  way  has  not  been 
worked  out,  although  roots  have  been  introduced  from  time  to  time. 
Plant  your  roots  in  the  garden,  just  as  you  would  callas,  where  you 
can  give  them  good  cultivation  and  water,  as  seems  to  be  necessary, 
and  note  their  behavior  under  these  favorable  conditions  before  you 
undertake  any  large  investment  in  a  crop. 

Licorice  Growing  in  California. 

/  have  for  some  time  been  seeking  for  some  information  as  to  the 
method  of  preparation  for  market  and  sale  of  licorice  roots'.  I  have  a- 
lot  of  them  and  have  never  been  able  to  Und  a  market,  and  do  not  knoio 
hozv  they  are  prepared  for  market. 

Licorice  was  first  planted  in  California  about  1880  by  the  late 
Isaac  Lea,  of  Florin,  Sacramento  county.  Mr.  Lea  grew  a  consider- 
able amount  of  licorice  roots  and  gave  much  efifort  to  finding  a  mar- 
ket for  it.  He  found  that  the  local  consumption  of  licorice  root  was 
too  small  to  warrant  growing  it  as  a  crop;  that  the  high  price  of 
labor  in  digging  the  roots,  and  the  high  cost  of  transportation  of 
the  roots  to  Eastern  markets  would  make  it  impossible  for  him  to 
undertake  competition  in  the  Eastern  markets  with  the  Sicilian  pro- 
ducers, unless,  perhaps,  he  could  build  an  extracting  factory  and 
market  licorice  extract,  the  black  solid  which  is  sold  by  the  drug- 
gist, and  which  the  Sicilians  produce  in  large  quantities.  The  prep- 
aration of  licorice  root  is  simply  digging  and  drying,  but  the  prep- 
aration of  the  extract  requires  steam  extractors  and  condensers. 
California  could  produce  licorice,  for  we  have  a  good  climate  for  it. 
If  it  is  grown  on  light,  sandy  loams,  it  could  be  pulled  from  the 
ground  by  the  yard  at  rather  small  expense,  and  yet,  one  should  not 
undertake  the  production  unless  he  wished  to  put  in  much  time  and 
money  in  working  up  economical  production  and  marketing  in  com- 
petition with  the  foreign  product,  produced  by  cheap  labor  and  with 


86  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

the  advantage  of  processes  well  known  and  established  by  long 
usage.  Experiments  should  be  circumspectly  undertaken,  for  licorice 
is  one  of  the  worst  weeds  in  the  world,  and  extremely  difficult  of 
eradication  probably. 

Growing  Lentils. 

Give  information  regarding  the  planting  and  raising  of  lentils.  Can 
they  be  grown  in  the  Sacraemnto  valley  in  the  vicinity  of  Colusa,  and 
at  a  profit? 

Lentils  are  as  easily  grown  in  California  as  common  peas,  and 
will  do  well  as  a  field  crop  if  started  during  the  rainy  season,  as  they 
are  hardy  enough  to  survive  our  ordinary  valley  frosts.  With  respect 
to  lentils,  it  may  be  said  that  excellent  as  these  legumes  are  for  many 
purposes,  they  do  not  seem  to  be  well  known  to  American  consum- 
ers, and  therefore  the  amount  to  be  grown  is  limited,  until  you  know 
who   will   buy  larger  quantities  of  them  at  a  good   price. 

Canada  Peas  for  Seed. 

/  zvant  to  raise  Canada  peas  for  the  seed.  In  what  month  of  the 
year  is  the  best  time  to  plant  them;  also  how  many  pounds  to  the  acre 
to  be  solved  broadcast  on  rolling  land  in  Napa? 

Broadcast  from  80  to  100  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  as  soon  as 
you  can  get  the  ground  into  good  condition.  What  you  get  will 
depend  much  upon  how  late  spring  rains  hold  this  year.  We  should 
only  try  a  small  area  this  year  to  see  what  happens,  for  you  probably 
should  have  started  earlier  in  the  season.  On  uplands  it  will  always 
be  a  question  whether  your  soil  will  hold  moisture  enough  to  mature 
a  good  seed  crop. 

Growing  Niles  Peas. 

How  shall  I  plant  and  handle  a  crop  of  Niles  peas? 

Niles  peas  are  hardy  and  will  make  a  good  crop  on  any  good 
soil,  if  planted  early  in  the  season  so  as  to  make  the  main  part  of 
their  growth  before  the  heat  of  the  summer  comes  on.  Under  gar- 
den  conditions    they   can,   of   course,   be   grown   all   summer. 

Transplanting    Lettuce. 

/  have  lettuce  plants  that  have  been  transplanted  to  head.  Occasion- 
ally I  find  a  head  that  has  withered  away  and  upon  examining  it  find  it 
rotted  away  at  the  stem.     Can  you  suggest  a  remedy  for  it? 

Your  lettuce  plants  are  destroyed  by  the  "damping  off"  fungus. 
It  would  be  preventable  by  reducing  the  amount  of  moisture  until 
the  transplanted  plant  had  opportunity  to  re-establish  itself  in  the 
soil  and  thus  come  into  condition  to  take  water.  The  chance  of  it 
could  also  be  reduced  by  using  a  certain  amount  of  sand  in  connec- 
tion with  the  soil,  unless  it  is  already  very  sandy,  and  by  a  shallow 
covering  of  sand  on  the  surface  around  the  plants  after  they  are  re- 
set, in  order  to  prevent  too  great  accumulation  of  moisture. 


Vegetable  Growing  87 

Handling  Winter  Melons. 

Give  particulars  regarding  harvesting,  storaging,  and  shipment  of 
winter  melons.     How  do  you  harvest  and  pack  them  for  distant  market? 

There  is  no  particular  system  in  the  liandling  of  winter  melons. 
They  are  gathered  into  piles  on  ground  where  water  will  not  gather 
and  covered  with  the  trash  of  the  vines  on  which  they  grow.  They 
will  keep  for  months  in  this  way,  as  our  autumn  temperatures  do 
not  freeze  them.  Other  growers  collect  them  in  open  sheds  shaded 
from  sun  and  rain,  and  still  others  put  them  into  barns  or  shallow 
cellars  under  buildings,  etc.  The  melons  are  very  durable  and  seem 
disposed  to  keep  in  any  old  way.  The  melons  are  shipped  in  large 
packing  cases  with  slat  sides,  or  in  the  smaller  slat  crates  that  are 
used  for  summer  cantaloupes.  No  packing  is  used,  generally.  If 
it  seemed  necessary,  a  little  clean  straw  would  be  sufficient. 

Ripe  Melons. 

How  can  I  tell  zvhen  a  watermelon  is  fully  ripef  What  is  the  method 
used  by  growers  in  picking  for  commercial  shipping f 

Gently  press  the  sides  of  a  melon  and  if  it  crackles  a  little  bit, 
all  right ;  if  it  makes  no  sound  then  go  to  another.  Commercial 
pickers  look  at  the  little  spiral  between  the  melon  and  the  nearest 
leaf.  If  it  is  withered  they  pick  the  melon,  if  fresh,  pass  it  until 
next  picking. 

Growing  Onion  Seed  and  Sets. 

Will  you  give  localities  of  the  leading  production  of  onion  seed  or 
dry  sets  in  your  State? 

Onion  seed  is  grown  in  several  parts  of  the  State,  largely  in  the 
Santa  Clara  valley  adjacent  to  the  city  of  San  Jose.  Onion  sets  are 
largely  produced  in  Orange  county,  near  Los  Angeles,  for  eastern 
shipment,  for  which   purpose  they  are  grown  under  contract. 

Ripening  Onions. 

/  am  raising  some  onions  from  bottom  sets  and  as  they  are  growing 
nicely  and  are  beginning  to  swell  at  the  bulb  some  advise  me  to  cut  the 
tops  off  and  some  advise  me  to  bend  them  over  or  tramp  them  doivn. 

Do  not  cut  ofif  the  tops  of  the  onions.  If  they  seem  to  be  over- 
growing and  not  disposed  to  ripen  the  bulb,  the  top  can  be  broken 
down,  thus  partly  arresting  the  vegetative  energy  of  the  plant  and 
causing  maturity. 

Onions  from  Sets. 

Will  onion  sets  planted  in  July  grozv  and  mature  in  the  fall  months? 

Good  onion  sets  grown  during  the  winter  and  spring  should  be 
mature  by  July  and  if  planted  after  drying  would  proceed  to  make 
a  full  growth  of  large  onions  if  growing  conditions  should  be  right 
for  them;  that  is,  the  soil  moist  and  the  temperature  not  too  high. 


§8  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

How  Many  Crops  of  Onion  Seed? 

Does  the  groiving  of  onion  seed  exhaust  adobe  land,  and  if  so,  how 
many  years'  cropping  before  it  requires  rest  or  fertilising? 

The  growth  of  any  seed  crop,  including  cereal  grains,  of  course, 
makes  a  supreme  draft  upon  soil  fertility.  How  long  a  certain  soil 
can  stand  it,  depends  upon  the  amount  of  fertility  it  has  when  the 
draft  begins.  The  best  rough  way  to  tell  how  it  is  going,  is  to  watch 
the  growth  and  crop,  when  moisture  conditions  are  known  to  be 
favorable.  If  you  get  a  good  growth  of  the  plant  it  is  still  good  to 
make  the  seed. 

Onions  from  Seed. 

Will  onions  from  seed  mature  the  same  season  if  they  are  irrigated? 
Some  tell  us  they  ivill  not,  so  zve  ivould  be  very  much  pleased  to  hear 
from  you. 

Onions  grown  from  the  seed  do  fully  develop  during  the  grow- 
ing season  following  the  planting  of  the  seed.  In  fact,  nearly  all 
California  onions  are  grown  in  that  way.  Our  growing  season  is  so 
long  that  we  do  not  need  to  use  onion  sets  to  any  extent,  .as  they 
do  in  short-summer  climates. 

Dry  Farming  with  Chili  Peppers. 

If  I  set  chili  pepper  plants  dawn  six  or  eight  inches  lower  than  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  till  in  as  the  plants  grow  larger,. will  this  help 
in  case  I  could  not  get  water  enough?  My  soil  is  a  deep  sandy  loam. 
We  have  had  betzveen  five  and  six  inches  of  rain.  Do  you  think  zvater 
every  fifteen  days  would  be  enough? 

On  such  light  soil  as  you  mention,  the  plants  can  be  planted 
deeply  and  a  certain  amount  of  soil  brought  up  to  the  plants  by 
cultivation  without  injury.  As  this  plant  has  a  long  growing  season 
and  matures  its  crop'  rather  late,  you  will  undoubtedly  need  irriga- 
tion. Probably  irrigation  twice  a  month  will  be  sufficient  in  con- 
nection with  good  cultivation,  but  you  will  have  to  watch  the  plants 
and  apply  the  water  as  it  seems  to  be  needed,  rather  than  by  a  spe- 
cific scheme  of  days. 

Harvesting  Peanuts. 

/  would  like  information  regarding  the  curing  of  peanuts.  Should 
they  be  bkached,  and,  if  so,  hozv  is  it  done?  Does  bleaching  affect  the 
ke.eping  qualities? 

It  is  not  usual  to  bleach  peanuts.  They  should  be  grown  in 
such  light  soil  that  they  will  not  be  stained,  and  the  common  method 
of  curing  is  to  dig  or  plow  up,  throw  the  vines,  with  nuts  attached, 
into  windrows  and  allow  them  to  lie  a  week  or  ten  days  for  drying. 
Then  the  nuts  are  picked  into  sacks  and  cleaned  before  shipment  in 
revolving  drums,  followed  by  a  grain  faji  which  throws  out  the  light 
nuts  and  other  rubbish.  Bleaching  would  not  destroy  the  keeping 
quality  probably,  but  it  would  destroy  the  flavor  and  the  germinating 
power.     The  latter  would  not  matter,  except  with  such  nuts  as  you 


Vegetable  Growing  89 

wish  to  keep  for  seed,  because  the  roasting:  destroys  the  germinating 
power  also,  but  sulpliuring,  which  would  reduce  the  flavor,  would 
give  the  product  a  bad  name.  Possibly  some  growers  do  bleaching, 
but,  if  so,  they  have  to  be  pretty  careful  about  it.  The  cost  of  the 
operation  would  also  be  a  bar  to  profit,  for  peanuts  are  grown  on  a 
narrow  margin  owing  to  competition  witli  importations  grown  with 
cheap  labor. 

Adobe  and  Peanuts. 
Is  adobe  laud  good  for   the  pcamd?     Is  it  harder   to   start   than   in 
other  soils  or  not? 

It  is  not  good  at  all.  Peanuts  require  the  finest,  mellowest  loam 
with  sand  enough  to  prevent  crust,  and  moisture  even  and  con- 
tinuous. The  surface  must  be  kept  loose  so  that  the  plant  can  bury 
its  own  bloom  stem  and  the  under  soil  light  and  clean  so  that  it  will 
readily  shake  from  the  nuts  and  not  stain  them.  Adobe  is  the  worst 
soil  you  could  find  for  peanuts. 

Cutting  Potatoes. 

What  would  be  the  most  profitable  potato  to  plant  i)i  the  Salinas  val- 
ley, and  how  small  can  a  potato  be  cut  up  for  planting?  Hoiv  many  eyes 
should  each  piece  contain  in  order  to  make  a  good  grozvth  and  be  profit- 
able f 

Probably  the  best  potato  for  your  district  would  be  the  Burbank, 
which  is  largely  grown  near  Salinas  and  brings  the  highest  price. 
It  is  customary  to  cut  a  medium-sized  potato  in  two  pieces  and  a 
large  one  in  four  pieces.  One  can  be  very  economical  of  seed  by 
smaller  cutting,  but  it  would  require  the  most  favorable  conditions 
to  bring  a  vigorous  growth.  Probably  pieces  weighing  not  less  than 
two  ounces  would  be  best  under  ordinary  conditions.  Potatoes  which 
are  rather  small  may  be  used  for  seed  if  well  matured  and  have  good 
eyes.  It  is  dangerous,  however,  to  use  the  small  stuff — too  small 
for  sale.  Unless  the  soil  and  moisture  conditions  are  extra  favor- 
able, the  growth  will  be  weak  and  unsatisfactory. 

Potato  Planting. 

Hozv  many  sacks  of  potatoes  are  to  be  planted  to  an  acre,  and  hozv 
many  eyes  are  to  be  left  in  a  seed?  If,  for  instance,  we  plant  seed  zvith 
three  eyes,  how  many  potatoes  should  we  get  from  that  vine? 

Potatoes  are  planted  all  the  way  from  five  to  fifteen  sacks  to 
the  acre,  probably  about  ten  sacks  being  the  average.  There  is  no 
particular  number  of  eyes  specified  in  preparing  the  seed,  according 
to  common  practice.  Good  medium-sized  potatoes  are  generally  cut 
in  two  pieces  crosswise,  and  large  potatoes  in  four  pieces,  cutting 
both  ways.  There  is  no  definite  relation  between  the  number  of 
eyes  planted  and  the  number  of  potatoes  coming  from  them.  This 
has  been  the  subject  of  innumerable  experiments,  and  the  conclusion 
is  that  the  crop  is  more  dependent  upon  good  soil  and  favorable 
growing  conditions  than  upon  any  way  of  preparing  the  seed. 


90  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Northern  Potatoes  for  Seed. 

Do  you  regard  northern-grown  seed  potatoes  sufficiently  better  to 
make  it  worth  zvhile  paying  freight  on  them  from  the  State  of  Wash- 
ington? 

Experience  sems  to  indicate  the  superiority  of  northern-grown 
seed  potatoes,  not  only  in  this  State,  but  on  the  Atlantic  Coast,  and 
they  are  largely  depended  upon.  Systematic  demonstration  by  com- 
parative tests  has  been  made  by  the  Vermont  station  and  preference 
for  northern-grown  seed  seems  to  be  justified. 

Potato  Planting. 

/  have  ten  acres  of  land  in  Placer  county  wliicli  I  propose  to  put 
into  potatoes  next  spring.  It  has  been  recommended  to  me  to  put  pota- 
toes in  as  early  as  January.  It  seems  to  me  that  January  is  rather  early; 
however,  it  is  said  that  this  land  is  in  the  orange  belt  and  practically 
free  from  frost. 

Whether  you  can  plant  potatoes  to  advantage  in  January  or  not 
depends  upon  the  temperatures  which  you  are  likely  to  meet  after 
that  date,  also  whether  the  ground  is  warm  enough  in  January,  be- 
cause there  is  no  advantage  in  planting  in  cold  ground  nor  in  soil 
that  is  too  wet  at  the  time.  The  earliest  potatoes,  of  course,  come 
from  planting  much  earlier  than  January;  usually  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  moistened  enough  in  the  autumn.  The  potato  will  stand 
some  frost,  but  autumn  planting  is  not  feasible  in  places  which  are 
under  hard  freezing  or  receive  too  much  cold  rain  water. 

Potatoes  Should  be  Planted  Early. 

/  have  Early  Rose  potatoes  planted  about  May  first.  The  tops  look 
fine,  but  there  are  fciv  potatoes  and  small,  and,  though  not  developed, 
have  commenced  groiving  a  second  time,  sprouts  starting  from  the  nczv 
potatoes.     When  should  I  plant  and  what  care  should  they  have? 

Your  potatoes  act  peculiarly  because  of  intermittent  moisture — 
the  plant  being  arrested  by  drought  and  then  starting  again,  which 
is  very  undesirable.  To  avoid  this,  potatoes  should  be  planted  earlier 
so  as  to  get  a  large  part  of  their  growth  during  the  rainy  season. 
If  planted  late  the  ground  should  be  well  wet  down  by  irrigation, 
and  then  plowed  and  cultivated,  and  irrigation  should  be  used  while 
the  plant  is  growing  well.  If  this  is  done,  potatoes  can  be  success- 
fully grown  by  irrigation,  but  if  the  land  is  allowed  to  become  dry 
the  plant  is  arrested  in  its  growth  for  a  time  and  a  second  and  unde- 
sirable growth  is  started. 

Potato  Balls. 

/  find  in  potato  zvritings  of  forty  years  ago  that  the  seed  front  the 
potato  balls  which  form  on  the  tops  of  the  plants  is  recommended  for 
growing  the  best  potatoes.  In  later  books  I  find  no  mention  of  them 
and  all  are  advised  how  to  cut  the  tubers  to  get  seed  potatoes. 


Vegetable  Growing  91 

The  seed  of  the  potato  plant  which  is  found  in  the  "balls"  which 
develop  on  the  tops  of  the  plant  is  only  valuable  for  the  origination 
of  new  varieties,  with  the  chance,  of  course,  that  most  of  them  will 
be  inferior  to  the  tubers  produced  by  the  plant  which  bears  the  seed. 
Therefore,  these  seeds  arc  of  no  commercial  importance.  There  has 
also  sometimes  developed  upon  the  top  of  the  plant  what  is  called 
an  aerial  tuber,  which  is  even  of  less  value  than  the  seed  ball,  be- 
cause it  does  not  contain  seed  nor  is  it  good  as  a  tuber. 

Forty  years  ago  there  was  a  great  demand  for  newer  and  better 
kinds  of  potatoes  which  has,  since  that  time,  been  largely  supplied, 
and  commercial  potato-growing  consists  in  multiplying  the  standard 
varieties  which  best  suit  the  soil  and  the  market.  This  is  done  by 
planting  the  tuber  itself,  which  is  really  a  root-cutting  and  therefore 
reproduces  its  own  kind.  Those  who  are  originating  new  kinds  of 
potatoes  still  use  seed  from  the  balls,  either  taking  their  chances  by 
natural  variation  or,  by  hybridizing  the  blossoms,  increasing  the 
chances  for  variation  from  which  desirable  varieties  are  taken  by 
selection,  to  be  afterward  multiplied  by  growth  from  the  tubers. 

Seed-Ends  of  Potatoes. 

Is  it  bad  practice  to  plant  the  seed-ends  of  potatoes? 
The  seed-end  of  the  potato  is   the  least  valuable  part  of  it,  but 
it  is  better  probably  to  plant  than  to  reject  it. 

The  Moon  and  Potato  Planting. 

Is  there  any  foundation  to   the  oft-repeated  story  about  potatoes  in 

the  light  of  the  moon  running  to  tops  and  the  dark  of  the  moon  to  spuds? 

If   we    paid   any   attention    to   the   moon    in    planting,    we    should 

plant  in  the  dark  of  the  moon  so  as  to  give  the  plant  opportunity  to 

make  use  of  whatever  additional  light  the  full  moon  afforded. 

Planting  Whole  Potatoes. 

One  man  states  the  only  zvay  to  cut  seed  is  to  take  a  potato  and  cut 
the  ends  off  and  not  divide  the  potato  any  more;  or,  in  other  words,  a 
whole  potato  for  each  seed. 

Good  results  are  obtained  by  planting  whole  potatoes,  but  in  that 
case  there  is  no  advantage  in  removing  the  ends. 

How  to  Cut  Seed  Potatoes. 

Would  it  pay  in  returns  to  use  large  potatoes  for  seed  in  preference 
to  culls? 

Large  potatoes  are  better  than  culls,  but  medium-sized  potatoes 
are  better  than  either.  Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  deter- 
mine this.  At  the  Arkansas  station  whole  tubers  two  to  three  inches 
in  diameter  yielded  18  per  cent  more  than  small  whole  tubers  three- 
quarters  to  one  and  one-quarter  inches  in  diameter,  and  large  cut 
tubers  yielded  15.8  per  cent  more  than  small  cut  tubers. 


92  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Cutting  Potatoes  to  Single  Eyes. 

Some  say  only  one  eye  to  a  piece;  others  say  several  eyes — zvhich  is 
better? 

In  one  experiment  potatoes  cut  to  single  eyes  witli  each  piece 
weighing  one-sixteenth  of  an  ounce  yielded  44  bushels  to  the  acre, 
while  single  eyes  on  two-ounce  pieces  yielded  177  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Experiments  in  Indiana  showed  that  the  yield  usually  increased  with 
the  weight  of  the  set  and  that  the  exact  number  of  eyes  per  cutting 
is  relatively  unimportant. 

Potato  Scab. 

Can  potatoes  be  treated  in  any  zvay  before  planting  to  prevent  the 
new  ones  from  being  what  is  called  "scabby"? 

There  are  two  successful  treatments  for  scab  in  potatoes.  One 
is  dipping  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Dissolve  one  ounce 
in  eight  gallons  of  water  and  soak  the  seed  potatoes  in  this  solution 
for  one  and  one-half  hours  before  cutting.  This  treatment  kills  the 
scab  spores  which  may  be  upon  the  exterior  of  the  potatoes.  More 
recently,  however,  to  avoid  danger  in  handling  such  a  rank  poison 
as  corrosive  sublimate,  formaldehyde  has  been  used,  and  one  pint  of 
commercial  formaldehyde,  as  it  is  bought  in  the  stores,  is  diluted 
with  thirty  gallons  of  water,  and  potatoes  are  soaked  in  this  for  two 
hours.  Thirty  gallons  of  this  dip  ought  to  treat  about  fifty  bushels 
of  potatoes. 

Double-Cropping  with  Potatoes. 

/  am  told  that  here  tzvo  crops  of  potatoes  can  be  raised  by  planting 
the  second  crop  in  August.  I  have  live  acres  zvhich  ivill  be  ready  to  dig 
in  July.  Can  I  dig  these  potatoes  and  use  them  for  seed  at  once  for  an- 
other crop,  or  zvon't  they  grozv?  I  have  a  crop  of  barley,  and  as  it  is 
heading  out  nozv,  I  zvanf  to  put  potatoes  on  the  ground  after  I  take  the 
barley  off.     I  have  plenty  of  water  to  irrigate. 

If  your  potatoes  ripen  in  July  and  you  allow  those  which  you 
desire  for  seed  to  lie  upon  the  ground  and  become  somewhat  green- 
ish, they  are  likely  to  sprout  well  for  a  second  crop.  They  should 
not,  however,  be  planted  immediately.  Whether  you  get  a  second 
crop  successfully  or  not  depends  upon  how  early  the  frosts  come  in 
your,  district.  Whether  you  get  potatoes  after  barley  or  not  depends 
also  upon  how  much  moisture  there  remains  in  the  soil.  By  irrigat- 
ing thoroughly  after  harvesting  the  grain  and  then  plowing  deeply 
for  potatoes,  you  would  do  vastly  better  than  to  plant  in  dry  ground 
and  irrigate  afterward. 

When  to  Plant  Potatoes. 

/  have  been  puzzled  to  understand  potato  grozving  in  California. 
Do  you  have  more  than  one  cropping  season,  and  if  so,  about  zvhat  dates 
are  they  due? 

Every  month  in  the  year  potatoes  are  being  put  into  the  ground 
and   being   taken   out   of   the   ground   somewhere   in    California.     We 


Vegetable  Growing  93' 

have,  then,  practically  a  continuous  planting  and  harvesting  season. 
There  is,  however,  a  division  possible  to  make  in  this  way:  Plant- 
ings undertaken  in  September  and  October  are  for  winter  supplies 
of  new  potatoes,  which  begin  about  the  holidays  and  continue  during 
the  winter.  There  is  also  in  southern  California  a  planting  beginning 
in  January,  which  might  be  called  the  earliest  planting  for  the  main 
crop,  and  other  plantings  for  the  main  crop  in  the  central  and  north- 
ern parts  of  the  State  begin  in  February  and  continue  until  May, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  land;  that  is,  whether  it  is  upland, 
on  which  the  planting  is  earlier,  or  whether  it  is  lowland  along  the 
rivers  where  excessive  moisture  mav  render  the  land  unsuitable  until 
April  or  May.  The  harvesting  of  the  main  crop  then  begins  in  May 
and  continues  during  the  whole  of  the  summer,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  land  cropped  over,  lapping  the  planting  time  for 
early  potatoes  first  mentioned.  It  is  also  true  by  use  of  properly 
matured  seed  one  can  secure,  in  some  places,  two  crops  a  year,  if 
there  is  sufficient  inducement  therefor.  Thus  it  comes  about  that 
we  are  continually  planting  and  digging  potatoes  according  to  local 
conditions   and  the   possibility  of   selling  advantages. 

Keeping  Potatoes. 

Advise  me  hozv  to  keep  my  potatoes.  What  is  the  best  tuayf  Would 
a  dark  room  be  suitable?  Soine  people  are  digging  holes  in  the  ground 
to  put  them  in. 

Potatoes,  if  properly  matured  and  free  from  disease,  will  keep 
for  a  considerable  time  in  dark  rooms  kept  as  cool  as  possible.  They 
must  be  kept  away  from  the  reach  of  the  moth,  which  is  parent  to 
the  worm  producing  long  black  strings  inside  of  the  potato.  If  they 
are  thoroughly  covered  with  boards  or  sacking  or  straw,  so  as  to 
keep  the  moth  from  reaching  the  potato,  they  may  be  held  for  a 
long  time  in  the  open  air,  and  covering  with  earth,  as  your  neighbors 
are  doing,  will  be  all  right  until  the  rains  come  and  cause  decay  by 
making  the  soil  too  wet.  The  main  point  is  to  keep  the  tubers  as 
cool  as  possible  and  out  of  reach  of  the  potato  moth. 

Potato  Yield. 

What  is  the  yield  per  acre  of  potatoes  on  the  best  land  around  Stock- 
ton, Cal.,  where  zvork  is  done  properly;  also  ivhat  is  the  yield  for  pota- 
toes along  the  coast? 

The  average  yield  of  potatoes  in  California,  taking  the  whole 
acreage  and  product  as  reported  by  the  last  United  States  census, 
is  147  bushels  to  the  acre.  In  Stockton  district,  on  good  new  re- 
claimed land  the  yield  has  been  reported  all  the  way  from  300  to  800 
bushels  per  acre — the  crop  declining  raoidly  when  continued  on  the 
same  land.  One  year's  crop  in  the  Stockton  district  was  estimated 
at  45,000  acres  averaging  125  sacks  per  acre.  The  coast  yield  would 
be  more  like  the  general  average  for  the  State  as  first  given. 


94  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

New  Potatoes  for  Seed. 

Can  I  plant  American  Wonder  potatoes  for  the  first  crop,  and  let 
enough  of  them  mature  to  use  for  seed  for  the  second  crop,  to  be 
planted  the  first  or  middle  of  July? 

It  is  possible  to  use  potatoes  grown  the  same  year  as  seed  for 
the  later  crop,  providing  you  let  the  potatoes  mature  first  by  the 
complete  dying  down  of  the  vines,  and  second  by  digging  the  pota- 
toes allow  them  to  lie  in  the  open  air,  with  some  protection  against 
sun-burning,  until  the  potatoes  become  somewhat  greenish.  If  this 
is  the  case  the  eyes  will  develop  and  seed  will  grow,  while  without 
such  treatment  you  might  be  disappointed  in  their  behavior.  Of 
course,  the  question  still  remains  whether  it  would  be  desirable  to 
do  this  or  to  plant  some  later  variety  earlier  in  the  season  when  the 
growing  conditions  would  be  better. 

Potato  Growing. 

In  what  locality  are  the  best  early  potatoes  grown  in  California? 
Can  they  be  raised  on  zvheat  lands  zvithout  irrigation  as  an  early  crop? 

Early  potatoes  are  grown  in  regions  of  light  frosts  in  all  parts 
of  the  State — around  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  on  the  mesas  in 
southern  California,  and  to  some  extent  at  slight  elevations  in  the 
central  part  of  the  State.  The  potato  endures  some  frost,  but  one 
has,  for  an  early  crop,  to  guard  against  the  locations  subject  to  hard 
freezing.  Most  of  our  potatoes  are  grown  without  irrigation  because, 
on  uplands,  winter  temperatures  favor  their  growing  during  the  rainy 
season.  The  middle-season  and  late  potatoes  are  grown  on  moist 
lowlands  where  irrigation  is  not  necessary.  In  proper  situations, 
much  of  the  land  which  is  used  for  potatoes  has  at  some  time  pro- 
duced wheat  or  barley,  corn  or  sorghum,  and  other  field  crops. 

Potatoes  After  Alfalfa. 

I  have  been  a  successful  potato  grower  in  Ohio.  I  have  the  best 
alfalfa  soil  and  it  is  nozu  in  its  fourth  year  of  productiveness  in  that 
crop.    I  would  like  to  grow  potatoes  in  a  small  ivay. 

Proceed  just  as  you  would  at  the  East  in  getting  potatoes  upon 
a  red  clover  sod.  Turn  under  the  alfalfa  deeply  now  if  the  soil  will 
work  well,  and  roll  your  sandy  soil.  You  must  use  a  sharp  plow 
to  cut  and  cover  well.  If  there  is  moisture  enough  the  alfalfa,  plowed 
under  in  the  fall,  ought  to  be  decayed  by  February,  when  you  could 
plant  potatoes  safely,  probably,  unless  your  situation  is_  very  frosty. 
If  you  plant  early  you  ought  to  get  the  crop  through  without  irriga- 
tion if  you  cultivate  well  and  keep  the  land  flat. 

Flat  or  Hill  Culture  for  Potatoes. 

Is  it  better  to  hill  potatoes  or  not? 
,  During  the  dry  time  of  the  year  potatoes  should  be  grown  with 

s/     flat  cultivation,  except  as  it  may  be  necessary  to  furrow  out  between 


Vegetable  Growing  95 

the  rows  for  the  application  of  irrigation  water.  Potatoes  grown 
during  the  rainy  season  in  places  where  there  is  liable  to  be  too  much 
water,  can  often  be  hilled  to  advantage,  but  dry-season  cultivation 
of  practically  everything  should  be  as  flat  as  possible  to  retain  moist- 
ure near  the  surface  for  the  development  of  shallow-rooting  plants. 

Bad  Conditions  for  Potatoes. 

Our  potatoes  zvere  planted  early  and  were  frosted  several  times  while 
young.  As  we  come  to  harvest  them  zve  Und  them  with  very  large  green 
tops  but  the  potatoes  are  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg  and  from  that 
they  run  dozvn  to  the  size  of  a  pea.  The  larger  ones  are  beginning  to 
send  out  roots,  four  or  live  to  a  potato.  The  potatoes  have  not  been 
irrigated  lately  and  the  ground  they  are  in  is  dry. 

The  ugly  behavior  of  your  potatoes  is  doubtless  due  to  irregu- 
larities in  temperature  and  moisture  which  have  forced  the  plants 
into  abnormal  or  undesirable  activity.  Potatoes  should  have  regular 
conditions  of  moisture  so  that  they  shall  proceed  from  start  to  finish 
and  not  stop  and  start  again,  for  this  will  usually  make  the  crop 
unsatisfactory  and  worthless.  Excessive  moisture  is  not  desirable, 
but  the  requisite  amount  in  continuous  supply  is  indispensable. 

Potatoes  on  Heavy  Land. 

Will  potatoes  grow  zuell  in  adobe  land,  or  partly  adobe,  that  has  not 
been  used  for  seven  years  e.vcept  for  pasturing? 

Although  potatoes  enjoy  best  of  all  a  light  loam  in  which  they 
can  readily  expand,  it  is  possible  to  get  very  good  results  on  heavy 
land  which  has  been  used  for  pasturage  for  some  years,  providing 
the  land  is  broken  up  early  and  deeply  and  harrowed  well  in  advance 
of  planting  and  thorough  cultivation  maintained  while  the  crop  is 
growing.  The  content  of  grass  roots  and  manure  which  the  land  has 
received  during  its  period  of  grazing  tends  to  make  the  soil  lighter 
and  will  also  feed  the  plant  well.  For  this  reason  better  potatoes 
are  had  on  heavy  land  after  pasturage  than  could  be  had  on  the  same 
land  if  continually  used  for  grain  or  for  some  other  crop  which 
tended  to  reduce  the  amount  of  humus  and  to  make  the  land  more 
rebellious  in  cultivation. 

Storage  of  Seed  Potatoes. 

We  need  potatoes  for  late  planting  and  have  found  a  good  lot  zvhich 
is  being  held  in  cold  storage  at  temperatures  from  34  to  36  degrees  F. 
They  have  not  been  there  long,  however.  Would  that  hurt  them  for  seed, 
and  also  how  long  could  they  be  safely  left  there  nozv  before  planting? 

Seed  potatoes  would  not  be  injured  in  storage,  providing  the 
temperature  is  not  allowed  to  go  below  the  freezing  point.  They 
should  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  remain  longer  in  storage,  but 
should  be  exposed  to  the  sun  for  the  development  of  the  eyes,  even 
to  the  sprouting  point  being  desirable  before  planting.     The  greening 


96  One  Thousand  Questioks  in  Agriculture 

of  the  potato  by  the  sun  is  no  disadvantage.  We  would  not  think 
of  planting  potatoes  directly  from  storage,  because,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  development  in  the  eyes,  decay  might  get  the  start  of  germination. 

Potatoes  and  Frosts. 

Can  I  keep  frost  off  of  potato  tops  by  building  smudge  fires?  I 
zvould  like  to  plant  about  February  I,  but  zve  usually  have  a  few  light 
frosts  here  during  March.  If  I  zuere  to  turn  zuater  in  the  field  zvhen  too 
cold,  zvould  that  keep  the  frost  off,  and  if  so,  zvould  I  have  to  turn  zuater 
dozmi  each  rozv,  or  zvould  one  furrozv  full  of  zvater  to  about  every  fourth 
or  sixth  rozv  be  enough  f 

You  can  prevent  frost  by  smudging  for  potatoes  just  as  you  can 
for  other  vegetables.  The  potato,  however,  needs  little  protection  of 
this  kind  and  will  endure  a  light  frost  which  would  be  destructive 
to  tomatoes,  melons,  and  other  more  tender  growths.  Unless  you 
have  a  very  frosty  situation,  you  can  certainly  grow  potatoes  without 
frost  protection,  and  they  should  be  planted  earlier  than  February 
first  if  the  ground  is  in  good  condition.  The  great  secret  of  success 
in  growing  potatoes  in  southern  California  is  to  get  a  good  early 
start  before  the  heat  and  drought  come  on.  Water  will  protect  from 
frost  if  the  temperature  only  goes  to  about  28  degrees  and  does  not 
stay  there  too  long.  The  more  water  there  is  exposed  the  longer 
may  be  the  protection,  but  probably  not  against  a  lower  temperature. 

Growing  Sweet  Potato  Plants. 

Hozv  sliall  I  make  a  hot-bed  to  raise  szveet  potato  plants?  I  don't 
mean  to  put  glass  over  bed,  but  zvaiit  full  description  of  an  up-to-date 
outfit  for  raising  them. 

Manure  hot-beds  have  been  largely  abandoned  for  growing  sweet 
potato  slips,  though,  of  course,  you  can  grow  them  that  way  on  a 
small  scale  or  for  experiment.  In  the  large  sweet  potato  districts, 
elaborate  arrangements  for  bottom  heat  by  circulation  of  hot  water 
or  steam  are  in  use.  In  a  smaller  way  hot  air  works  well.  The  Ari- 
zona Experiment  Station  tells  how  a  very  good  sweet  potato  hot-bed 
at  little  cost  is  constructed  as  follows:  A  frame  of  rough  boards 
seven  feet  wide,  twenty  feet  long  and  fourteen  inches  deep  is  laid 
down  over  two  flues  made  by  digging  two  trenches  one  foot  deep 
and  about  two  feet  wide,  lengthwise  of  the  bed.  These  trenches  are 
covered  with  plank  or  iron  roofing,  and  are  equipped  with  a  fire  pit 
at  one  end  and  short  smokestack  at  the  other. 

Four  inches  of  soil  is  filled  into  this  bed  and  sweet  potatoes 
placed  upon  it  in  a  layer  which  is  then  covered  with  two  or  three 
inches  more  of  soil.  Large  potatoes  may  be  split  and  laid  flat  side 
down.  The  whole  bed  is  then  covered  with  muslin,  operating  on  a 
roller  by  which  to  cover  and  uncover  the  bed.  Thus  prepared,  the 
bed  may  easily  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  60  to  70  degrees  F.  by 
smouldering  wood  fires  in  the  fire  boxes.  The  potatoes,  kept  moist 
at  this  temperature,  sprout  promptly  and  will  be  ready  to  transplant 


Vegetable  Growing  97 

in  about  six  weeks.  A  bed  of  the  size  mentioned  will  receive  five  to 
seven  bushels  of  seed  roots,  which  will  make  slips  enough  to  plant 
an  acre  or  more  of  potatoes. 

Growing  Sweet  Potatoes. 

Please  inf 0)1)1  »ie  Iiozu  to  keef>  SiCeet  (potatoes  for  seed;  also  how 
many  poioids  it  takes  for  one  acre,  and  zcliat  distance  apart  to  plant,  and 
the  tinic  to  plant. 

Sweet  potatoes  may  be  kept  from  sprouting  by  storage  in  a  cool, 
dry  place.  Sweet  potatoes  are  not  grown  by  direct  cutting  of  the 
tuber  as  the  ordinary  potato  is,  but  the  tubers  are  put  in  January  or 
later  in  a  hot  bed  and  the  sprouts  are  taken  off  for  planting  when 
the  ground  becomes  warm  and  all  danger  of  frost  is  over  in  the  lo- 
cality. The  number  of  sprouts  required  for  an  acre  is  from  five  to 
ten  thousand,  and  a  bushel  of  small  sweet  potatoes  will  produce 
about  two  thousand  sprouts  if  properly  handled  in  the  hot  bed,  which 
consists  in  removing  the  sprouts  when  they  have  attained  a  height 
of  five  or  six  inches,  and  in  this  way  the  potatoes  will  be  yielding 
sprouts  in  succession  for  some  time.  The  sprouts  are  planted  in 
rows  far  enough  apart  for  horse  cultivation.  They  are  usually  hilled 
up  pretty  well  after  starting  to  grow  well.  They  cannot  be  planted 
until  the  danger  of  frost  is  over,  for  they  are  much  more  tender 
than  Irish  potatoes. 

Sweet  Potato  Growing. 

In  planting  stuect  potatoes,  do  :ce  liave  to  niake  hotbeds  just  like  those 
for  to))iatoes,  or  if  just  a  plai)i  seed-bed  zvill  do?  Is  it  necessary  to 
irrigate  them  or  not? 

You  can  bed  your  sweet  potatoes  in  a  warm  place  on  the  sunny 
side  of  a  building  or  board  fence,  and  get  sprouts  all  right.  You 
will,  however,  get  them  sooner  and  in  greater  numbers  by  using 
a  slow  hotbed  in  which  the  manure  supply  is  not  too  large.  The 
fact  that  sweet  potato  growers  do  use  some  artificial  heat,  either 
from  manure  or  by  piping  bottom-heat  in  their  propagating  houses, 
is  a  demonstration  that  such  recourse  is  desirable  to  get  best  results. 
The  necessity  of  irrigation  depends  upon  the  soil  and  its  natural 
moisture  supply.  On  a  fine  retentive  loam,  the  crop  is  chiefly  made 
without  irrigation,  if  the  plants  arc  all  ready  to  put  out  in  the  field  as 
soon  as  it  is  safe.  If  you  are  late  in  the  planting,  or  if  the  soil  is 
dry  or  likely  to  dry  before  the  tubers  are  grown  to  good  size, 
irrigation,  some  time  ahead  of  the  need  of  the  plant,  is  essential. 

Sweet  Potatoes. 

What  kind  of  soil  and  climate  does  it  take  to  grotc  stvecf  potatoes, 
and  can  I  grow  thon  in  any  part  of  Contra  Costa  county,  and  about  zchat 
time  is  the  best  to  plant  them? 

Sweet  potatoes  do  best  in  a  light  warm  loam  which  drains  well 
and  does  not  bake  or  crust  by  rain  or  irrigation.     Sprout  the  tubers 


98  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

in  a  hot-bed  or  cold-frame  in  February  and  break  off  the  shoots 
and  plant  as  soon  as  you  are  out  of  danger  by  frost.  Sweet  potatoes 
are  more  tender  than  common  potatoes.  There  are  places  in  Contra 
Costa  county  where  they  do  well,  though  some  parts  of  the  county 
do  not  have   enough  summer  heat. 

Sweet  Potatoes  Between  Fruit  Trees. 

I  am  expecting  to  grow  a  fall  crop  of  about  twenty  acres  of  sweet 
potatoes.  The  land  is  a  heavy,  sandy  loam  in  the  interior,  which  has 
been  set  out  this  spring  to  almonds,  apricots  and  prunes.  I  wish  to  grow 
sweet  potatoes  between  trees.  Would  an  irrigation  every  forty  days  be 
often  enough?  Also,  if  either  sivect  or  Irish  potatoes  grown  betiveen  rows 
are  harmful  to  either  of  the  varieties  of  fruit  mentioned? 

We  see  no  reason  why  you  should  not  get  your  crop,  providing 
you  do  not  have  to  run  the  plants  into  the  frosty  period,  and  sweet 
potatoes  will  not,  of  course,  stand  frost  as  well  as  the  common 
potato.  The  moisture  which  you  propose  to  give  ought  to  be  enough 
for  a  retentive  soil  in  connection  with  good  cultivation  until  the 
vines  cover  the  ground.  Growing  any  crop  between  orchard  trees 
is  apt  to  be  an  injury  to  the  trees,  because  of  the  spaces  which  are 
not  and  cannot  be  adequately  cultivated,  so  that  the  ground  around 
the  trees  is  apt  to  become  compacted  either  by  the  run  of  water  or 
the  lack  of  cultivation,  or  both.  Our  observation  has  been  that  Irish 
potatoes  are  no  more  injurious  than  other  crops.  Any  crop  will 
injure  young  trees  if  it  takes  moisture  they  ought  to  have  or  inter- 
feres with   good  cultivation  of  the  land. 

Giant  Japanese  Radish. 

In  discussing  sakurajima  (giant  Japanese  radish)  Eastern  publications 
advise  planting  late,  about  August  i,  and  not  earlier  than  July  i.  What 
can  you  tell  me  about  the  plant  here? 

The  Asiatic  winter  radishes  can  be  successfully  planted  in  Cali- 
fornia in  July  or  August  if  the  soil  is  thoroughly  saturated  by 
irrigation  before  digging  and  planting.  It  is,  however,  not  so  neces- 
sary to  begin  early  in  California  as  at  the  East,  because  our  winter 
temperatures  favor  the  growth  of  the  plant,  while  at  the  East  they 
have  to  make  an  early  start  in  order  to  get  something  well  grown 
before  the  ground  freezes.  For  the  growth  of  winter  radishes,  then, 
in  California  you  can  wait  until  the  ground  is  wet  thoroughly  by  the 
rain,  which  may  be  expected  during  September,  and  afterward  you 
can  make  later  plantings  for  succession  at  any  time  you  desire  during 
the  rainy  season.     This  applies  to  all  kinds  of  radishes. 

Rhubarb  Rotting. 

/  have  planted  rhubarb  roots  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley  and  find  the 
root  crowns  rot  below  the  surface. 

The  old-fashioned  summer  rhubarb  usually  goes  off  that  way  in 
very   hot   localities.     If   there   is   too   much   alkali   or   hardpan,   or   if 


Vegetable  Growing  99 

planted  too  late,  the  same  results  will  be  had  with  any  sort  of  rhubarb. 
Where  it  is  very  hot,  plants,  irrigated  in  the  morning  near  the  plants, 
scald  at  the  crown  and  die  in  a  few  days.  If  irrigated  in  the  after- 
noon and  the  ground  worked  before  it  gets  hot  the  next  day  fine 
results  are  obtained.  The  winter  rhubarb  varieties  do  well  in  hot 
districts  if  the  roots  are  planted  from  September  15  to  May  1,  while 
in  cooler  sections,  April,  May,  June  and  July  are  the  best  months 
and  will  insure  a  crop  the  following  winter. 

Squashes  Dislike  Hardship. 

What  caused  these  squashes,  of  which  I  send  you  samples,  to  be  so 
hard  and  zvoodyf     They  were  grown  without  irrigation. 

Your  squashes  were  grown  without  irrigation  under  conditions 
which  were  too  dry  for  them  and  became  inferior  in  quality.  Pos- 
sibly the  variety  itself  is  not  of  good  quality  or  the  specimen  from 
which  the  seed  was  taken  may  have  been  inferior.  A  squash,  in  order 
to  be  tender  and  acceptable,  needs  rich  feeding  and  plenty  of  drink. 
Otherwise,  it  is  apt  to  resent  ill  treatment  by  very  undesirable  growth. 

Harvesting  Sunflowers. 

What  is  the  method  used  in  saving  or  threshing  the  seed  from  the 
Giant  Russian  suniiower? 

Cut  oflf  the  seed  heads  of  your  sunflowers  when  the  seed  seems 
to  be  well  matured  but  before  any  of  it  falls  away  from  the  head. 
Throw  these  heads  on  a  smooth  piece  of  ground  or  a  tight  floor 
and  when  they  become  thoroughly  dry  thresh  out  the  seed  with  a 
flail,  removing  the  coarse  stuff  with  a  rake  and  afterwards  cleaning 
the  seed  by  shoveling  it  into  the  wind  so  that  the  light  stuff  may  be 
blown  away.  A  more  perfect  cleaning  afterwards  could  be  secured 
with  a  grain  fanning  mill  or  a  simple  sieve  of  the  right  mesh. 

Irrigating  Tomatoes. 

How  much  zvater  does  it  take  (in  gallons  or  cubic  feet)  to  properly 
irrigate  an  acre  of  land  for  tomatoes?  The  soil  is  adobe,  and  the  cus- 
tomary way  of  planting  tomatoes  is  6  feet  apart  each  way,  plowing  a 
trench  of  one  furrow  zvith  the  slope  of  the  land  for  irrigating,  that  is, 
a  trench  betiveen  every  row  and  a  cross  trench  as  a  feeder.  The  land 
is  low  and  in  the  driest  part  of  the  year  the  surface  water  is  from  2  to  s 
feet  beneath  the  top  of  the  ground. 

It  is  not  possible  to  state  a  specific  quantity  of  water  for  any 
crop,  because  the  amount  depends  to  such  a  large  extent  upon  the 
retentiveness  of  the  soil,  the  rate  of  evaporation  and  the  kind  of 
cultivation.  The  best  source  of  information  is  the  behavior  of  the 
plant  itself,  bearing  in  mind  that  tomato  plants  require  constant  but 
not  excessive  moisture  supply,  and  that  if  moisture  is  applied  in  excess 
it  will  promote  an  excessive  growth  of  the  plant,  which  will  cause 
it  to  drop  its  blossoms   and   therefore   be   unsatisfactory  and   unpro- 


100  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

ductive.  In  such  land  as  you  describe  no  irrigation  whatever  would 
be  desirable  except  in  years  of  short  rainfall,  and  such  land,  if 
properly  cultivated,  would  always  furnish  moisture  enough  by  capillary 
action  to  support  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

Less  Water  and  More  Heat. 

What  chemicals  should  I  put  into  the  soil  to  insure  a  good  crop  of 
vegetables,  such  as  tomatoes,  string  beans,  or  other  over-ground  pro- 
ducers? Last  year  my  tomatoes  and  string  beans  grew  plentifully,  but 
never  produced  any  tomatoes  or  beans,  yet  turnips  and  parsnips  were  all 
right. 

Vegetables  which  behave  like  your  tomatoes  and  string  beans, 
making  too  much  growth  and  not  enough  fruit,  do  not  need  fertiliza- 
tion. The  land  is  perhaps  too  rich  already,  or  you  may  have  used 
too  much  water.  Use  less  water  so  that  the  plants  will  make  a  more 
moderate  growth,  and  they  will  be  fruitful  if  the  season  is  warm 
enough  in  the  later  part  of  summer.  This,  of  course,  would  be  one 
of  the  drawbacks  to  growing  tomatoes  and  beans  in  San  Francisco. 
Turnips  and  parsnips  do  well  with  less  heat.  You  may  have  to 
modify  the  San  Francisco  summer  climate  by  wind  screens  or  glass 
covers. 

Continuous  Cropping  With  the  Same  Plant. 

What  would  happen  on  the  crops  of  cucumbers,  tomatoes  and  egg- 
plants,  etc,  planted  -on  the  same  place  continuously? 

There  would  be  in  time  a  decadence  of  crop  from  soil  exhaustion, 
but  that  you  could  prevent  by  fertilization.  The  greatest  danger  from 
continuously  growing  these  vegetables  on  the  same  land  is  the  mul- 
tiplication of  bacteria  which  injuriously  afifect  them,  in  the  soil.  The 
plants  which  you  mention  are  all  subject  to  "wilt"  diseases  from  this 
cause,  therefore,  they  should  have  new  ground.  If  you  have  to  use 
the  same  garden  ground  continuously,  the  plants  which  you  mention 
should  be  rotated  with  root  crops  or  with  other  kinds  of  vegetables, 
so  as  to  frequently  change  plants  and  soil  within  the  general  area 
which  has  to  be  used  for  them. 

Big  Worms  on  Tomatoes. 

/  have  a  nice  patch  of  tomatoes  in  my  garden,  and  only  recently  I 
notice  large  green  worms  on  them  ivith  one  large  brozvn  horn  on  their 
head.     They  strip  the  leaves  off.     They  look  to  me  like  a  tobacco  zvorm. 

They  are  tobacco  worms;  that  is,  they  are  the  larvae  of  hawk 
moths,  some  of  which  take  tobacco,  tomatoes,  grapevines  and  many 
other  plants,  including  some  of  the  native  weeds  of  your  valley. 
Pick  them  ofif  and  crush  them,  or  give  them  a  little  snip  with  the 
scissors  if  you  do  not  like  to  handle  them.  They  are  so  large  and 
easily  found  that  such  treatment  is  easily  applied,  as  in  "worming 
tobacco." 


Vegetable  Growing  101 


Loss  of  Tomato  Bloom. 


/  liaz'c  tomato  pJaiits  ichicli  urc  2'cry  strong  and  hcaltliy  and  full 
of  blossoms,  but  there  is  sometliiii}^  etittiHg  the  blossoms  off  and  just 
about  to  ruin   my  plants. 

The  trouble  with  your  tomato  plants  is  tliat  life  is  too  easy  for 
them,  that  they  have  so  much  moisture  and  plant  food  that  they  can 
grow  comfortably  and  rapidly  without  thought  of  the  future.  So, 
because  they  do  not  have  to  think  of  making  fruit,  the  blossoms  drop 
off.  This  is  a  very  common  occurrence  with  tomatoes,  especially 
in  home  gardens  where  the  owners  have  not  the  experience  or  the 
information  on  the  subject  that  they  might  have,  and  give  the 
tomatoes  too  much  water.  Many  other  plants  act  the  same 
way  and  will  not  set  fruit  while  they  can  grow  easily,  and  only  begin 
to  produce  when  they  have  made  a  great  growth  or  when  moisture 
begins  to  get  a  little  short.  If  you  irrigate  the  tomatoes,  stop,  and 
put  no  more  water  on  until  the  plant  begins  to  set  fruit  as  if  it  meant 
business,  or  gives  some  sign  that  water  would  be  appreciated.  If 
the  ground  is  naturally  moist  you  will  have  to  wait  until  the  plants 
make  more  growth  and  the  weather  gets  drier  and  hotter,  and  the 
plants  will  then  set  fruit.  Some  growers  have  found  that  by  trim- 
ming  up   the   vine   and   staking   it,   the   fruit    sets   much    more    readily. 


PART  III.    GRAINS  AND  FORAGE 

CROPS 

Wants  Us  to  Do  the  Whole  Thing. 

Can  you  help  me  to  determine  a  good  product  to  plant  somewhere 
in  California ;  also  ivhat  particular  section  would  be  most  suitable  for 
the  raising  of  that  which  you  would  advise?  I  wish  a  crop  of  per- 
manent nature  (as  orchard  trees).  I  also  desire  advice  on  some  product 
which  li'ould  give  a  quick  return  while  I  am  waiting  on  the  more  per- 
manent one  to  mature  and  hear.  I  have  not  procured  land  yet,  and  am 
thinking  seriously  of  trying  to  get  government  land,  therefore,  you  are 
free  to  give  me  the  best  location  for  the  raising  of  that  which  you  would 
suggest.  I  zvant  a  money-making  product  and  one  zvhich  is  not  already 
overdone. 

The  choice  of  crops  depends  quite  as  much  upon  the  market 
demand  and  opportunity  as  it  does  upon  the  suitability  of  the  soil 
and  local  climate.  Choice  of  crops  indeed  involves  almost  the  whole 
business  of  farming,  and  although  we  can  sometimes  give  a  man 
useful  suggestions  as  to  the  growth  of  plants  and  the  protection  of 
plants  from  enemies,  we  cannot  undertake  to  plan  his  farming  busi- 
ness for  him.  He  must  form  his  own  opinions  as  to  what  will  be 
most  marketable,  and  therefore  profitable,  if  he  succeeds  in  getting 
a  good  article  for  sale.  A  wise  man  at  the  East  once  said:  "You 
can  advise  a  man  to  do  almost  anything.  You  can  even  select  a  wife 
for  him,  but  never  commit  the  indiscretion  of  advising  him  what  to 
grow  to  make  money.  That  is  a  matter  he  has  to  determine  for 
himself." 

Pasturing  Young  Grain. 

Would  it  be  advisable  to  herd  milch  cozvs  for  a  fczu  hours  each  day 
on  a  Held  of  black  oats  wliich  is  to  be  grown  for  hay?  The  oats  are  now 
about  four  inches  high  and  rank,  as  the  land  was  pastured  last  year.  The 
land  is  sandy,  rolling  soil  and  will  soon  be  dry  enough  so  that  the  cows 
would  not  injure  the  plants.  The  idea  is  that  the  leaves  which  ar^ 
green  now  zvill  all  dry  up  and  are  really  not  the  growth  which  is  cut  for 
hay;  therefore,  I  should  think  it  would  do  no  harm  to  feed  it  down  a 
bit. 

Over-rank  grain  with  abundant  moisture  will  make  a  more  stocky 
growth  and  stand  against  lodging  if  pastured  or  mowed.  The  leaves 
which  you  speak  of  as  being  lost  in  the  later  growth  of  the  plant 
serve  an  important  purpose  in  making  that  growth,  and  removing 
them  is  a  repressive  process  which  is  not  desirable  when  rain  is 
short.  We  should  allow  the  plants  to  push  along  into  as  good  a 
growth  of  hay  as  a  dry  year's  moisture  will  give. 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  103 

Dry  Plowing  for  Grain. 

We  have  land  that  zve  could  very  easily  plozv  now  zvith  our  traction 
engine  and  improved  plows,  but  the  people  here  claim  that  it  does  not 
pay  to  dry-plozv,  that  is,  before  the  land  has  had  a  good  rain  on  it  and 
the  vegetation  has  started.  I  believe  in  dry  plowing.  Two  of  our  oldest 
fanners  in  Merced  county  dry-plowed,  that  is,  they  commenced  plozcing 
as  soon  as  harvesting  was  over. 

If  the  rainfall  is  small  and  likely  to  come  in  light  showers,  dry 
plowing,  if  it  turns  up  the  land  in  large  clods,  miglit  yield  poorer 
results  than  land  which  is  plowed  after  rain,  because  there  would  be 
so  much  moisture  lost  b}'  drying  out  from  the  coarse  surface  when 
it  came  in  amounts  not  adequate  for  deep  penetration.  Plowing  after 
the  rain  for  the  purpose  of  killing  out  the  foul  stuff  which  starts  is, 
however,  quite  another  consideration.  It  is  a  fact  that  dry  plowing 
and  sowing  is  not  now  desirable  in  some  places  where  it  was  formerly 
accepted,  because  the  land  has  become  so  foul  as  to  give  a  rank 
growth  of  weeds  which  choke  out  the  grain  at  its  beginning.  Such 
land  can  be  cleaned  by  one  or  two  shallow  plowings  and  cultivations 
after  there  is  moisture  enough  to  start  the  weeds  to  growing.  These 
are  local  questions  which  you  will  have  to  settle  by  observation.  In 
a  general  way,  it  is  true  that  opening  the  surface  of  the  ground 
before  the  ranis,  reduces  the  run-off  and  loss  of  moisture,  but 
whether  there  would  be  any  loss  of  moisture  by  run-off  or  not  depends 
upon  the  slope  of  the  land  and  also  upon  the  way  in  which  the  rain 
comes,  and  the  total  amount  of  moisture  which  is  available  for  the 
season. 

Sub-varieties  of  California  Barley. 

Can  you  tell  zvhere  I  can  buy  seed  of  varieties  of  California  six- 
rowed  barley,  described  as  "pallidum"  and  "coerulescens,"  and  zvhat  the 
seed  will  cost? 

No  one  knows  where  the  six-rowed  barley,  known  as  "common" 
barley  in  this  State,  came  from,  nor  when  it  came.  It  has  been  here 
since  the  early  days  and  it  has  naturally  shown  a  disposition  to  vary, 
so  that  it  is  quite  possible  to  select  a  number  of  types  from  any  large 
field  of  it.  These  variations  have  been  studied  to  some  extent  by 
Eastern  students  who  are  endeavoring  to  develop  American  types  of 
barley  for  brewing  purposes  as  likely  to  be  better  than  the  brewing 
varieties  which  are  famous  in  Europe.  In  Europe  brewing  barleys 
are  chiefly  two-rowed.  Under  California  conditions  the  plant  is  able 
to  develop  just  as  good  brewing  grains  on  a  six-rowed  basis,  and  this 
seems  to  be  a  commendable  trait  in  the  way  of  multiplying  the  prod- 
uct. The  names  "pallidum"  and  "coerulescens"  indicate  t\yo  of  these 
varieties  recognized  by  Eastern  students.  It  is  not  possible  at  this 
time  to  get  even  a  pound  of  selected  grain  true  to  this  type,  and  no 
one  knows  when  it  will  be  worked  out  to  available  quantities. 


104  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Chevalier  Barley. 

Has  Chevalier  barley  more  value  to  feed  hens  for  egg  production  than 
common  feed  barley  or  wheat? 

Chevalier  barley  is  no  better  for  chicken  feed  than  any  other 
barley  which  is  equally  large  and  plump.  Brewers  like  Chevalier 
because  of  its  fullness  of  starch  to  support  the  malting  process; 
also,  because  it  is  bright,  that  is,  white,  and  not  stained  or  tinged 
with  bluish  or  reddish  colors.  Color  points  do  not  count  for  chicken 
feed,  but  good  plump  kernels  do.  Besides  this,  however,  darker 
kernel  (not  chaff)  usually  indicates  more  protein,  and  therefore  a 
darker  kernel  of  either  wheat  or  barley  might  be  more  valuable 
for  feeding.  A  hard,  horny  kernel  is  richer  than  a  softer,  more 
starchy  one,   either   in   wheat   or  barley. 

Barley  on  Moist  Land. 

What  zvould  you  do  ivith  land  subject  to  overfloiv  by  the  Sacramento 
when  that  river  rises  20  feet,  and  which  you  wanted  to  plant  to  barley 
this  season?  Would  you  take  a  chance  on  the  river  rising  that  high  this 
year,  or  zvait  until  after  that  danger  u'as  over,  and  take  a  chance  on  not 
getting  enough  rain  to  make  the  grain  come  up;  also,  if  the  river  did 
come  up  for  48  hours  after  the  grain  zvas  in,  but  did  not  ivash,  zvould  the 
grain  be  lost?  Should  the  graiti  be  planted  deeper  than  on  ordinary  land, 
and,  if  so,  should  a  drill  be  used?  Hozv  much  seed  should  be  sozvn  per 
acre  on  good  river-bottom  soil? 

Get  the  barley  in  and  watch  for  the  overflow  rather  than  to 
fear  it.  An  overflow  for  48  hours  would  give  you  the  greatest  crop 
you  ever  saw,  unless  it  should  be  in  a  settling  basin  and  the  water 
forced  to  escape  by  evaporation.  From  your  description  we  judge 
that  this  is  not  so  and  that  the  land  clears  itself  quickly  from  an 
overflow.  Depth  of  sowing  depends  upon  the  character  and  con- 
dition of  the  soil — the  lighter  and  drier  the  deeper.  By  all  means 
use  a  drill  if  the  soil  is  dry  on  the  surface.  Short  rainfall  makes 
the  advantage  of  drill  seeding  most  conspicuous.  On  the  University 
Farm  22  trials  gave  an  average  gain  of  over  10  per  cent  in  yield. 
The  difference  would  be  much  greater  in  a  dry  year;  it  might  be 
25  per  cent  greater,  possibly,  and  save  high-priced  seed  at  the  same 
time,  as  about  90  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  will  do,  instead  of  120 
pounds  broadcast,  in  accordance  with  the  approved  heavy  seeding 
practice  on  the  river  lands. 

Barley  and  Alfalfa. 

I  have  some  alfalfa  which  is  a  poor  stand.  Can  I  disc  it  up  heavily 
and  seed  in  some  barley  for  zvinter  pasture? 

You  can  get  barley  into  your  alfalfa  as  you  propose,  but  you 
should  not  seed  until  fall.  The  more  barley  you  get  into  your 
alfalfa,  however,  the  less  alfalfa  you  will  have  afterward.  If  you 
want  to  improve  your  afalfa,  keep  everything  else  out  of  the  field 
and  help  the  plants  by  regular  irrigations  during  the  balance  of  the 
growing  season. 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  105 

Beets  and  Potatoes. 

Which  is  the  best  for  dairy  rcti'j,  />/(///;  red  iiuuifiels  or  a  cross  bc- 
tii'cen  these  and  sugar  beets/  Can  you  sug^^est  a  more  {profitable  zariely 
of  potato  than  the  Oregon  Burbank? 

If  you  can  get  a  cross  which  gives  you  more  tonnage  than  a 
mangel  and  a  higher  nutritive  content  you  would  have  somctiiing 
better  to  grow.  The  first  point  you  have  to  determine  by  growing 
the  two  side  by  side  and  weighing  the  product;  the  nutritive  value 
of  each  will  have  to  be  determined  by  chemical  analysis.  I'ntil 
these  determinations  are  actuallj'  made  a  comparison  of  desirability 
is  nothing  but  conjecture.  There  are  several  other  potatoes  wliich 
are  sometimes  more  profitable  here  and  there  for  early  crop  when 
grown  in  an  early  locality.  If  you  are  not  in  an  early  locality  you 
are  obliged  to  produce  for  tlie  main  crop,  and  nothing,  to  our  knowl- 
edge, sells  as  well  as  the  Burbank,  if  you  get  a  good  one. 

Beets  for  Stock. 

Will  sugar  beefs  grozc  on  black  alkali  land?  Hozv  many  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre  should  be  used  and  ivhen  is  it  time  for  soidng  in  the  San 
Joaquin  valley f    Which  kind  zvould  be  best  for  cozvsf 

Beets  will  do  more  on  alkali  than  some  other  plants,  but  too 
much  alkali  will  knock  them  out.  You  must  try  and  see  whether 
you  have  too  much  alkali  or  not.  You  can  sow  at  various  times 
during  the  rainy  season,  for  the  beets  will  stand  some  frost.  Sow 
8  pounds  per  acre  in  drills  2^  to  3  feet  apart,  so  as  to  use  a  horse 
cultivator.  For  stock  you  had  better  grow  large  stock  beets  like 
mangolds  or  tankards — not  sugar  beets.  It  costs  too  much  to  get 
sugar  beets  out  of  the  ground,  because  it  is  their  habit  to  grow  small 
and  bury  themselves  for  the  sake  of  the  sugar  maker,  while  stock 
beets  grow  largely  above  ground. 

Summer  Start  of  Stock  Beets. 

Hozv  can  I  make  Mangel  JVurcels  grozv  in  hot  zceatherf  The  land 
is  level  and  can  be  irrigated  by  flooding  or  ditching  betn'cen  the  rozcs. 
Hozv  often  should  the  zvater  be  applied,  and  zvhich  method  used?  The 
land  is  in  fine  shape;  a  sandy  loam  bordering  on  to  heavier  land. 

Wet  the  land  thoroughly;  plow  and  harrow  and  drill  in  the 
seed  in  rows  about  2^  feet  apart.  This  ought  to  give  moisture 
enough  to  start  the  seed.  Cultivate  as  soon  as  you  can  see  the  rows 
well.  Irrigate  in  a  furrow  between  the  rows  about  once  a  month; 
cultivate   after   each   irrigation. 

Corn  Growing  for  Silage. 

With  fair  culiivaiion.  zvill  an  acre  produce  about  10  tons  of  ensilage 
zuithout  fertilisation — //  being  bottom  land?  Hozv  should  it  be  planted? — 
the  rozvs  closer  together  than  j  feet,  or  should  it  be  planted  the  usual 
zvidth  between  rozvs,  and  thick  in  the  rozvs?    If  fertilisers  zvere  to  be  used, 


106  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

ivhat  kind  would  you  recommend?     Would  you  recommend  deep  plowing 
follozved  by  a  packer  and  harrozv  so  as  to  preserve  the  moisture? 

You  ought  to  be  able  to  get  10  tons  of  silage  per  acre  from 
corn  grown  on  good  corn  land.  It  can  be  best  grown  in  rows 
sufficiently  distant  for  cultivation,  closer  in  the  row  than  would  be 
desirable  for  corn,  and  yet  not  too  crowded,  because  corn  for  silage 
should  develop  good  ears  and  should  be  cut  for  silage  about  the  time 
when  the  glazing  begins  to  appear.  If  your  land  needs  fertilization, 
stable  manure  or  a  "complete  fertilizer"  of  the  dealers  would  be  the 
proper  thing  to  use.  It  would  be  very  desirable  to  plow  corn  land 
deeply  the  preceding  fall,  followed  by  a  packer  or  harrow  to  settle 
down  the  land  below,  but  do  not  work  down  fine.  Keep  the  surface 
stirred  from  time  to  time  during  the  winter  and  put  in  the  crop 
with  the  usual  cultivation  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  frost  danger 
is  over. 

Irrigation  for  Corn. 

What  amount  of  water  is  necessary  per  acre  for  the  best  possible 
yield  of  corn  under  acreage  conditions  and  proper  cultivation  in  the  San 
Joaquin  or  Sacramento  valleys? 

No  one  can  answer  such  a  question  with  anything  more  than  a 
guess.  It  depends  upon  how  much  rain  has  fallen  the  previous 
winter,  how  retentive  the  soil  is  naturally,  and  what  has  been  done 
to  help  the  soil  to  hold  it.  Nearly  all  the  corn  that  is  grown  is 
carried  without  any  irrigation  at  all  on  moist  lowlands,  which  may  be 
too  wet  for  winter  crops.  If  you  demand  a  guess,  make  it  six  acre- 
inches,  with  a  good  surface  pulverizing  after  each  run  of  water  in 
furrows  between  the  rows.  This  water  would  be  best  used  in  two 
or  three  applications. 

Eastern  Seed  Corn  for  California. 

The  question  has  been  raised  as  to  Eastern-grown  seed  corn,  comparing 
it  with  Calif  or  nia-groivn  seed.  Some  claim  that  the  former  does  not  yield 
well  the  first  season. 

We  cannot  give  a  complete  refutation  of  the  impression  that 
Eastern  seed  corn  does  not  yield  well  the  first  season  in  California. 
It  is  a  somewhat  prevalent  impression.  All  that  we  can  announce 
now  is  that  we  have  grown  collections  of  Eastern  seed  corn  and 
have  found  the  product  quite  as  good  as  could  have  been  expected, 
and  did  not   encounter,  apparently,   the   trouble   of  which   you  write. 

Need  of  Corn  Suckering. 

To  insure  the  best  crop  of  corn  possible,  does  it  pay  to  sucker  it  or 
not? 

The  removal  of  suckers  is  a  matter  of  local  conditions  largely  in 
California,  and  growers  are  getting  out  of  the  habit  of  suckering.  In 
some  places  suckering  is  needed,  and  in  others  it  apparently  does  not 
pay  to  do  so,  although  with  very  rare  exceptions  a  larger  yield  can 
be  secured  by  suckering  than  without. 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  107 

Cow  Peas  Not  Preparatory  for  Corn, 

What  time  of  the  yair  can  cojc  peas  be  planted,  and  can  the  entire 
crop  be  plowed  under  in  time  for  planting  Held  cornf 

Cowpeas  are  very  subject  to  frost.  They  are  really  beans,  and 
therefore  can  be  grown  in  the  winter  time  only  in  a  few  practically 
frostless  places.  Wherever  frosts  are  likely  to  occur  they  must  be 
planted,  like  beans  and  corn,  when  the  frost  danger  is  over.  Field 
peas,  Canadian  peas  and  vetches  are  hardy  against  frost  and  there- 
fore safer  for  winter  growth,  and  treated  as  you  propose  they  may 
be  preparatory  for  corn-growing  providing  you  plow  them  under  soon 
enough  to  get  a  month  or  more  for  decay  before  planting  the  corn. 

Oats  and  Rust. 

Is  there  any  variety  of  oats  that  is  rust-proof,  or  any  method  of  treat- 
ing oats  that  ivill  render  them  rust  resistant?  We  are  situated  on  a  moun- 
tain, only  about  12  miles  from  the  coast,  and  have  considerable  foggy 
weather,  zvhich  most  of  the  farmers  here  say  is  the  cause  of  the  rust. 

There  is  no  way  of  treating  oats  which  will  prevent  smut,  if  the 
variety  is  liable  to  it.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  resistance  of 
different  varieties.  A  few  dark-colored  oats  are  practically  rust-proof, 
and  you  can  get  seed  of  them  from  the  seedsmen  in  San  Francisco 
and  Los  Angeles.  Such  varieties  are  chiefly  grown  on  the  southern 
coast.  Foggy  weather  has  much  to  do  with  the  rust,  because  it 
causes  atmospheric  moisture  which  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the 
fungus,  which  is  usually  checked  by  dry  heat,  and  yet  there  are  at- 
mospheric conditions  occasionally  which  favor  the  rust  even  in  the 
driest  parts  of  the  State.  The  fog  favors  rust,  but  does  not  cause  it. 
The  cause  is  a  fungus,  long  ago  thoroughly  understood  and  named 
puccinia  graminis. 

Midsummer  Hay  Sowing. 

Can  I  sozu  oats  or  barley  in  July  upon  irrigated  mesa  land,  with  the 
object  of  making  hay  in  the  falU  Which  of  the  two  would  do  the  better 
in  summer  timet    I  have  plenty  of  water. 

We  have  never  seen  this  done  to  advantage.  If  you  desire  to  try 
it,  irrigate  thoroughly  and  plow  and  sow  afterward.  Use  barley  rather 
than  oats  and  irrigate  when  the  plant  shades  the  land  well,  if  you  get 
growth  enough  to  warrant  it.  It  will  be  easier  to  get  the  crop  than 
to  figure  a  profit  in  it. 

Loose  Hay  by  Measure. 

How  many  cubic  feet  should  be  allowed  for  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  loaded 
on  a  wagon  from  the  shock?  I  must  sell  more  or  less  in  that  tuay,  as  no 
scales  are  near  enough  to  be  used. 

It  is  a  proposition,  as  to  the  weight  of  loose  hay,  which  could  of 
course  keep  changing  the  higher  you  built  the  load  on  the  wagon. 
It  is  easier  to  give  figures  on  weight  from  a  stack  in  which  there  has 
been  something  like  uniform  pressure  for  a  time.     In  the  case  from 


108  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

a  30-day  stack  it  is  common  to  allow  an  eight-foot  cube  to  a  ton,  etc. 
Perhaps  you  can  guess  from  that. 

When  to  Cut  Oat  Hay. 

To  make  the  best  red  oat  liay  sJioidd  it  be  cut  when  in  the  "milk," 
"dough"  or  nearly  ripe? 

It  should  be  cut  in  the  "soft  dough"  or,  as  some  express  it,  "be- 
tween the  milk  and  the  dough."  This  is  probably  as  near  an  ap- 
proach in  words  as  can  be  made  to  that  condition  which  loses  neither 
by  immaturity  or  by  over-maturity  from  the  point  of  view  of  hay 
which  is  to  get  as  much  as  can  be  in  the  head  without  losing  nutritive- 
ness  in  the  straw.  Of  course  there  are  other  conditions  intruding 
sometimes,  like  the  outbreak  of  rust  or  the  premature  ripening 
through  drought.  In  such  cases  care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  the 
plant  stand  too  lon^  for  the  sake  of  reaching  an  ideal  condition  in 
the  head — which  for  lack  of  favorable  growing  conditions  the  plant 
may  not  be  able  to  reach. 

Rye  for  Hay. 

When  is  the  best  time  to  cut  rye  for  hay,  and  hozv  should  it  best  be 
handled?  Would  it  be  well  to  cut  it  up  and  blow  it  into  the  barn,  and 
would  it  do  all  right  for  silage? 

Rye  makes  poor  hay  on  account  of  its  woody  stems  and  must  be 
cut  earlier  than  other  grains.  After  that  it  is  handled  as  is  other  hay. 
Cutting  it  up  would  probably  be  more  of  a  help  than  to  other  grain 
hay.  It  could  be  put  into  the  silo,  but  would  of  course  have  to  be  cut 
pretty  green  and  would  have  to  run  through  a  cutter  and  blower.  Put- 
ting it  in  whole  would  be  out  of  the  question.  In  the  silo,  the  fer- 
mentation would  largely  overcome  the  woodiness  of  the  stems.  It 
would  also  as  a  silage  balance  up  nicely  with  alfalfa,  and  the  best  way 
to  do  would  be  to  mix  it  with  alfalfa  when  putting  it  in. 

Rye  in  California. 

Which  kind  of  rye  is  the  hardiest,  the  best  yielding,  and  the  best  hay 
varieties  in  your  State? 

Rye  is  the  least  grown  of  all  the  cereals  in  California,  and  no 
attention  has  been  paid  to  selection  of  varieties.  That  which  is  pro- 
duced is  "just  rye,"  of  some  common  variety  which  came  to  the  State 
years  ago  and  still  remains.  No  rye  is  grown  for  hay,  as  the  tough- 
ness of  the  stem  renders  it  undesirable  for  that  purpose.  There  is  a 
certain  amount  of  rye  grown  for  winter  feeding.  This  is  grown  in  the 
foothills  principally  and  it  serves  an  excellent  purpose,  but  it  is  fed  off 
before  approaching  maturity. 

That  Old  Seven-Headed  Wheat. 

We  are  sending  you  sonie  heads  of  grain  zvhich  zuas  groivn  in  this 
county.     The  land  zvas  planted  with  an  imported  Australian  wheat,  which 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  K)Q 

zne  believe  the  smaller  heads  to  be,  but  the  zcheat  is  about  evenly  mixed 
with  grain  like  the  large  heads,  zchich  ivc  think  to  be  a  species  of  barley. 
The  grain  is  an  old.  coarse,  bearded  wheat  which  is  continually 
appearing  in  helds  of  ordinary  grain  and  naturally  excites  interest 
among  all  to  whom  the  variety  is  a  novelty.  It  is  the  old  seven- 
headed  Egyptian  wheat,  which  has  never  proved  of  any  cultural  value, 
because  its  manifolding  of  the  head  is  of  no  advantage.  It  is  better 
to  have  a  straight  well-filled  head  than  to  have  a  branching  head  of 
this  kind.  This  matter  has  been  fully  demonstrated  by  experience 
during  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  not  only  in  this  State,  but  in 
other  States,  for  the  variety  has  a  way  of  getting  around  the  world, 
and  seed  has  sometimes  been  sold  at  exorbitant  prices  to  people  who 
have  been  persuaded  that  it  is  of  particular  value. 

Speltz. 

/  have  heard  of  a  Russian  grai)i  called  "S[>eltc"  or  "Emmer."  Can 
I  raise  it  successfully  and.  if  so,  zvhaf  is  the  very  best  time  of  year  to  sow 
same  for  the  best  crop  obtainable:^  Can  it  be  sozvn  in  the  fall,  say  Novcm- 
ber?  Would  springtime  be  a  better  time  to  sozu  it  on  soil  that  is  very 
soft  in  winter? 

If  your  land  yields  good  crops  of  wheat  or  barley  or  oats,  you 
have  little  to  expect  from  speltz  or  emmer.  This  is  a  grain  generally 
considered  inferior  to  those  just  mentioned  and  advocated  for  condi- 
tions under  which  the  better  known  grains  do  not  do  well.  It  is  hardy 
against  drought  and  frost,  particularly  the  latter,  and  is,  therefore, 
chiefly  grown  in  the  extreme  north  of  Europe.  It  may  be  sown  in 
the  fall  or  in  the  spring  in  places  where  rains  are  late  and  carry  the 
plant  to  maturity. 

Italian  Rye  Grass. 

What  kind  of  grass  is  enclosed/    Also  the  best  method  to  eradicate  it? 

The  grass  is  the  Italian  rye  grass,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
the  Italian  variety  of  the  perennial  rye  grass.  It  is  proving  a  very 
satisfactory  grass  in  California  for  moderate  drought  resistance  and 
for  winter  growing,  and  a  great  deal  of  it  is  being  sown  for  these 
purposes.  You  can  readily  kill  it  out  by  cultivation,  but  most  people 
are  more  occupied  with  its  propagation  than  with  its  destruction. 

Fall  Feed. 

Can  I  irrigate  and  plant  a  forage  crop  in  July  to  feed  dairy  cows  this 
fall  and  xvintcr?  Would  you  recommend  cozv  peas  or  some  kind  of  sugar 
corn?    If  cow  peas,  how  many  pounds  to  the  acre? 

If  you  wet  down  the  land  thoroughly  and  then  plow  and  harrow 
and  plant  either  cow  peas  or  Indian  corn,  you  ought  to  get  a  good 
green  crop  before  frost.  Drill  in  or  drop  the  seed  in  rows  about 
three  feet  apart  and  keep  cultivating  and  irrigating  as  long  as  you 
can  get  through  without  injuring  the  crop  too  much.  Use  about  40 
pounds  of  cow  peas  to  the  acre. 


110  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Hurry-up  Pasture. 

Wliat  can  I  plant  this  fall  which  would  produce  pasturage  for  a  small 
amount  of  stock  this  zvintcr,  and  until  I  can  get  the  land  under  irrigation 
and  seeded  to  alfalfa? 

For  quick  fall  and  winter  growth  nothing  is  better  probably  than 
oats  and  vetches  sown  together  as  soon  as  you  get  rain  enough  to 
plow,  but  it  would  be  a  question  whether  it  is  worth  while  to  work  for 
that,  because  you  ought  to  get  your  land  ready  for  February  sowing 
of  alfalfa  and  that  will  keep  the  land  busy  after  the  rain  gets  it  into 
working  condition. 

Johnson  Grass. 

/  am  informed  that  Johnson  grass  makes  Une  hay.  I  have  not  sown 
the  seed  yet,  hut  would  like  to  know  if  the  hay  is  good  and  if  it  will  grow 
on  dry  land.  I  have  the  seed  on  hand,  but  do  not  want  to  sow  it  if  it  is 
not  good. 

Johnson  grass  is  poor,  coarse  stufif.  The  plant  is  most  valuable 
for  grazing  when  young.  Johnson  grass  will  not  grow  on  really  dry 
land,  but  it  will  take  the  best  moist  land  it  can  find  and  hold  on  to  it. 
It  is  sensitive  to  frost  and  is  not  a  winter  grower  except  in  the  absence 
of  frost. 

Improving  Heavy  Land  for  Alfalfa. 

ily  land  is  very  heavy,  red  loam,  and  crusts  over  very  hard  in  dry 
seasons.  I  would  like  to  know  if  it  would  be  best  to  use  barnyard  compost 
over  the  surface  as  a  mulch,  or  would  it  be  best  to  use  plain  strazv  for 
that  purpose? 

A  very  heavy  soil  can  be  brought  into  better  surface  condition  for 
alfalfa  by  plowing  in  stable  manure  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  fall 
rains,  in  order  that  the  manure  may  have  opportunity  to  become 
disintegrated  and  mixed  with  the  soil  by  the  time  for  alfalfa  sowing, 
which  is  from  February  to  April — whenever  the  heavy  frosts  of  the 
locality  are  over.  For  a  small  piece,  you  might  get  a  better  stand  by 
using  a  light  mulch  of  disintegrated  coarse  manure  or  even  straw, 
scattering  it  after  the  sowing,  but  for  a  large  acreage  this  would  involve 
too  much  labor.  It  is  not  desirable  to  work  in  much  manure  or  other 
coarse  stuff  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed,  but  you  can  make  a  light 
surface  application  after  the  plant  has  made  a  start. 

Cultivating  Alfalfa. 

When  is  the  best  time  to  cultivate  alfalfa,  and  how  often  during  the 
season  is  it  advantageous  to  do  so?     Which  is  the  best  implement  to  use? 

Cultivated  alfalfa  is  a  term  applied  to  alfalfa  sown  in  rows  and 
allowed  to  grow  in  narrow  bands  with  cultivated  land  between,  and 
the  irrigation  is  then  done  in  a  furrow  in  the  narrow  cultivated  strip. 
This  will  give  thriftier  growth  and  perhaps  more  hay  to  the  acre  than 
flooded,  broad-casted  alfalfa,  but  it  will  cost  so  much  more  that  the  acre- 
profit  would  probably  be  less.     This  is  an  intensive  culture  of  alfalfa 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  111 

which  is  still  to  be  tested  out  in  California,  if  any  one  should  be 
inclined  to  do  it.  Some  one-cow  suburbanite  would  be  in  condition  to 
try  the  scheme  first.  Probably  you  refer  to  disking,  and  for  that  an 
ordinary  disk  is  used  with  the  disks  set  pretty  straight  to  reduce  the 
side  cutting,  and  this  is  done  at  diflferent  times  of  the  year  by  different 
growers.  By  doing  it  when  the  ground  gets  dry  in  the  early  spring 
much  of  the  foul  stuff  is  cut  out  before  the  alfalfa  starts  strongly.  But 
disking  seems  to  be  good  whenever  in  the  year  the  soil  is  dry  enough 
to  take  it  well. 

Suburban  Alfalfa  Patch. 

How  can  we  rid  the  alfalfa  of  ivccds?  As  we  are  obliged  to  hire  help, 
and  do  not  succeed  in  getting  the  hay  cared  for  until  xve  have  mostly 
stalks  without  leaves,  I  have  put  the  cow  on  it  to  pasture  it  off. 

The  cow  knows  how  to  handle  it,  but  you  will  not  get  as  much 
alfalfa  as  if  you  cut  and  carried  it  to  her.  If  you  cut  sooner  you  will 
get  rid  of  many  plants  which  are  propagated  by  the  seeds  wliich  they 
produce,  and  you  will  also  get  better  hay,  more  leaves  and  fewer  stalks. 
Cut  it  about  the  time  it  begins  to  bloom,  not  waiting  for  the  full  bloom 
to  appear. 

Alfalfa  and  Bermuda. 

I  have  land  zvhich  ivas  seeded  to  alfalfa  some  15  years  ago  and  has 
been  pastured  continuously  until  it  was  almost  all  Bermuda.  I  had  it 
thoroughly  plowed,  disk  harroivcd  and  sozvcd  to  oats;  disk  harroivcd  in, 
and  drag  harrozved.  After  cutting  for  hay  this  year  I  intend  putting  it  in 
Egyptian  corn  in  rows,  so  it  can  be  cultivated  to  get  rid  of  Bermuda.  I 
have  also  been  advised  to  plozv  the  land  immediately  after  harvesting  corn 
and  let  it  lie  until  next  January  and  then  plow  and  sozv  to  barley  and 
alfalfa  as  I  wish  to  groiv  alfalfa.  Kindly  let  me  know  if  method  is  right. 
The  land  is  sandy  loam  and  under  irrigation. 

Whether  you  will  fully  succeed  against  Bermuda  grass  or  not  is  doubt- 
ful. It  is  probable,  however,  that  you  can  reduce  the  Bermuda  so  that 
other  cultivated  crops  can  be  continuously  grown.  Common  experience  is 
that  Bermuda  will  hold  on  unless  you  have  hard  freezing  of  the 
ground  to  a  considerable  depth,  as  they  have  in  the  northern  States. 
The  best  use  that  you  can  make  of  land  infested  with  Bermuda  is  to 
get  as  good  a  stand  as  you  can  of  alfalfa  and  let  the  alfalfa  fight  for 
itself.  The  combination  of  alfalfa  and  Bermuda  grass  makes  very 
good  hay  or  pasturage.  We  should,  however,  sow  the  alfalfa  alone 
and  not  handicap  it  by  sowing  with  barley.  The  Bermuda  will  smile 
at  that  advice.  Egyptian  corn  can  be  planted  in  rows,  2}/2  to  3  feet 
between  the  rows  to  admit  of  easy  cultivation 

Bermuda  Grass. 

What  is  the  value  of  Bermuda  grass  as  a  forage  crop  for  cattle, 
more  particularly  dairy  cozvs? 

Bermuda  grass  is  generally  condemned  because  of  getting  in 
places   where   it  is   not  desirable  and   of  being  almost  impossible  of 


112  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

eradication  therefrom.  Still,  Bermuda  grass  will  make  good  pas- 
turage on  land  which  is  too  alkaline  to  make  other  crops,  and  there- 
fore is  highly  esteemed  by  some  owners  of  waste  lands  in  the  San 
Joaquin  valley.  It  is  good  pasturage  and  is  most  easily  propagated 
by  cutting  the  roots  up  into  short  pieces  by  use  of  the  hay-cutter, 
nearly  all  the  pieces  retaining  an  eye  which  will  make  a  new  plant. 
It  is  easy  to   get  in  and  hard  to  get  out. 

Salt  Grass  and  Alfalfa. 

/  have  some  land  in  Sutter  county  and  it  lias  some  of  tliis  salt  grass 
in  spots.  I  am  about  to  take  a  tzventy-acre  piece  and  put  in  alfalfa,  but 
some  old-timers  tell  me  that  the  salt  grass  on  it  is  bad  stuff  to  handle. 

Your  trouble  will  probably  be  not  so  much  the  salt  grass,  but  the 
alkali  in  the  soil  which  the  salt  grass  can  tolerate  and  which  other 
plants  cannot  stand.  You  cannot  then  substitute  alfalfa  for  salt 
grass  without  getting  the  alkali  out  of  the  soil,  and  you  cannot  do 
this  without  having  sufjficient  drainage  so  that  the  rainfall  may  wash 
the  alkali  out  from  the  soil  and  carrj^  it  away  in  the  drainage  water. 
You  probably  cannot  get  a  satisfactory  growth  of  alfalfa  on  the  spots 
where  the  salt  grass  has  established  itself,  although  the  land  round 
about  may  be  very  satisfactory  to  alfalfa. 

Giant  Spurry. 

I  would  like  information  about  spurry.  Hozu  much  frost  zvill  it 
stand?     What  is  time  for  sowing?    Its  value  as  crop  to  plow  under? 

From  a  California  point  of  view,  spurry  is  a  winter-growing  weed 
which  has  been  approved  by  orchardists  in  Sonoma  county  because 
it  yields  a  considerable  amount  of  vegetation  for  turning  under  with 
the  spring  plowing  of  the  orchard.  For  this  purpose  it  should  be 
sown  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season.  Its  value  as  a  crop  to 
turn  under  depends  upon  the  amount  of  growth  you  can  get.  It 
is  not  a  legume  and,  therefore,  does  not  have  the  value  of  the  nitro- 
gen-gathering plant.  Still,  it  yields  humus  and,  therefore,  is  valuable 
for  winter  growing  as   ordinary  weeds,  grasses,  grains,  etc.,  are. 

Light  Soil  and  Scant  Moisture. 

Advise  me  as  to  ploiving  under  a  crop  of  last  year's  weeds  zuhere 
I  intend  to  plant  beans,  corn,  etc.  The  soil  is  "sUckens,"  on  the  Yuba 
river,  and  the  zvccds  grew  up  last  year  in  a  crop  of  volunteer  barley, 
which  zuas  Jioggcd  off.  I  expect  to  plow  five  inches  deep,  and  calculate 
that  the  barley  strazv  and  zveeds  zvill  contribute  to  the  supply  of  humus, 
which  is  always  deficient  in  most  of  our  soils.  I  expect  to  try  to  grow 
beans  zvithout  irrigation,  and  wonder  if  the  trash  would  hold  the  soil 
too  open  so  as  to  dry  them  out. 

Considering  the  character  of  the  soil  which  you  describe  and 
the  shallow  plowing  you  intend  we  should  certainly  burn  off  all  the 
trash   upon    the    land.      With   deep    plowing    early    in    the    season    this 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  113 

coarse  stuff  could  be  covered  in  to  advantage,  but  it  would  be 
dangerous  to  do  it  in  tbe  spring.  Clean  land  and  tliorough  cultiva- 
tion to  save  moisture  cnougli  for  summer's  growth  is  tin-  only 
rational  spring  treatment. 

Clovers   and    Drought. 

/  haz'c  sandy  loam  zdtJi  some  allcali.  In  zi'ct  years  it  is  regarded 
as  too  damp  in  some  places.  Can  you  give  me  any  information  on  the 
following  points?  I  have  praelically  no  water  for  irrigation  and  I  feel 
sure  that  alfalfa  zt'ould  not  grozv  zvithout  it.  Do  you  think  that  clover 
zi'oiild  make  one  or  more  cuttings  without  zcater? 

Red  and  white  clover  are  less  tolerant  of  drought  than  alfalfa, 
which,  being  a  deep-rooting  plant,  is  especially  commended  in  dry- 
farming  undertakings.  Red  clover  will  grow  better  on  low  wet  lands 
than  will  alfalfa,  but  the  land  must  not  dry  out  or  the  red  clover 
will  die  during  the  dry  season.  None  of  the  plants  will  stand  much 
alkali. 

Clover  for  Wet   Lands. 

What  kind  of  alfalfa  zvill  do  best  on  sub-irrigated  land  zvhich  is 
very  wet?  I  have  sozvn  it  in  alfalfa  and  it  grozvs  finely  for  tzvo  or  three 
years,  but  then  the  roots  rot  and  die. 

It  is  impossible  to  make  any  kind  of  alfalfa  grow  well  on  very 
wet  land,  that  is,  where  the  water  comes  too  near  the  surface. 
Alfalfa  has  a  deep-running  tap  root  which  is  very  subject  to  standing 
water.  You  can  get  very  good  results  from  the  Eastern  red  clover 
on  such  land,  because  the  red  clover  has  a  fibrous  root  which  is 
content  to  live  in  a  shallow  layer  of  soil  above  water.  But  red  clover 
will  not  stand  drought  as  well  as  alfalfa,  because  it  is  shallower 
rooting.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  water  should  be  perman- 
ently near  the  surface  or  surface  irrigation  be  frequently  applied,  in 
order  to  secure  satisfactory  growth  of  red  clover  in  the  drier  sections 
of  California.  It  is  also  necessary  that  neither  land  nor  water  carry 
alkali. 

Frosted  Grain  for  Hay. 

The  freeze  struck  us  pretty  severely.  I  had  125  acres  of  summer- 
fallowed  wheat  zvliich  I  had  estimated  to  make  20  sacks  to  the  acre  of 
grain.  It  zvas  breast  high  in  places  already,  and  zt'as  just  heading  out. 
The  frost  pinched  the  stalks  of  this  grain  in  several  places  and  the  heads 
are  now  turning  zuhite.  It  is  ruined  for  grain.  There  is  lots  of  fodder 
in  it,  and  it  should  be  made  into  hay.  If  so,  should  it  not  be  cut  and 
cured  at  once?  What  is  the  relative  zvorth  of  such  hay  as  compared  zvith 
more  matured  hay?  Would  the  fact  that  it  is  frozen  make  it  injurious 
to  feed? 

If  the  whole  plant  seems  to  be  getting  white,  the  sooner  it  is 
cut  the  better.  If  the  head  is  affected  and  the  leaf  growth  continued, 
cutting  might  be  deferred  for  the  purpose  of  getting  more  of  it. 
Hay   made    from   such   material   will    not   be    in   any   way   dangerous, 


114  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

although  it  would  be  inferior  as  containing  less  nutritive  and  more 
non-nutritive  matter.  Such  hay  would  seem  to  be  most  serviceable 
as  roughage  for  cows  or  steers  in  connection  with  alfalfa  hay  or  some 
other  feed  which  would  supply  this  deficiency. 

Forage  Plants  in  the  Foothills. 

IVe  have  3,000  acres  of  foothill  land  and  hope  to  be  able  to  irrigate 
some  land  this  spring  and  wish  to  knoiv  the  best  forage  crops,  for  sheep 
and  hogs,  especially.  Kafir  corn,  stock  peas,  rape,  sugar-beets  and  arti- 
chokes are  the  varieties  about  which  we  desire  information. 

Where  you  have  irrigation  water  available  in  the  foothills  you 
can  get  a  very  satisfactory  growth  of  red  clover.  We  have  seen  it 
doing  very  well  on  sloping  land  in  your  county  where  water  was 
allowed  to  spill  over  from  a  ditch  on  the  ridge  to  moisten  the  slope 
below.  Winter  rye  and  other  hardy  stock  feeds  could  also  be  grown 
in  the  winter  time  on  the  protected  slopes  with  the  rainfall.  Some 
such  plants  are  not  good  summer  growers,  owing  to  the  drought. 
Rape  is  a  good  winter  grower  by  rainfall,  but  not  so  satisfactory  as 
vetches  and  kale.  Sugar  beets  are  not  so  good  for  stock  purposes  as 
stock  beets,  which  give  you  much  more  growth  for  the  same  labor 
and  are  more  easily  gathered  because  they  grow  a  good  part  out  of 
the  ground.  They  will  stand  considerable  freezing  and  may  be 
sown  at  different  times  throughout  the  year,  whenever  the  land  is 
moist,  either  by  irrigation  or  rainfall.  Artichokes  are  of  doubtful 
value.  We  have  never  found  anyone  who  continued  to  grow  them 
long.  Of  course,  on  good,  deep  land,  with  irrigation,  nothing  can 
be  better  than  alfalfa  as  supplementary  to  hill  range  during  the 
summer  season. 

Winter   Forage. 

At  what  time  of  the  year  should  I  plant  kale,  Szviss  chard,  etc.,  so 
as  to  have  them  ready  for  use  during  the  months  from  February  to  Junef 

You  should  plant  Swiss  chard,  kale,  etc.,  as  soon  as  the  ground 
is  sufficiently  moist  from  the  rain  in  the  fall.  In  fact,  it  would  be 
desirable  for  you  to  plant  the  seed  earlier  in  boxes  and  thus  secure 
plants  for  planting  out  when  the  ground  is  sufficiently  moist.  These 
plants  are  quite  hardy  against  frost,  and  in  order  to  have  them 
available  by  February,  a  start  in  the  autumn  is  essential. 

A  Summer  Hay   Crop. 

What  can  I  put  on  the  land  after  the  oat  crop  is  taken  off  to  furnish 
hay  for  horses  during  the  coming  winter?  I  had  thought  millet  zvould 
be  good.    I  have  water  for  irrigation. 

You  could  get  most  out  of  the  land  you  mention  during  the  hot 
season  bv  growing  Kafir  corn  or  milo,  cutting  for  hay  before  the 
plant  gets  too  far  advanced.  If  your  land  can  be  flooded  and  takes 
water  well,  so  that  you  can  wet  it  deeply  before  plowing,  the  sorghum 
seed   can  be   broadcast  and   the  crop  cut  with   the  mower  while   the 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  115 

stalks  are  not  more  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  makes  a 
good  coarse  hay.  If  you  have  not  water  enough  or  the  land  does 
not  he  right  for  flooding,  you  can  grow  the  sorghum  in  drills  and 
irrigate  by  the  furrow  method,  being  careful,  however,  not  to  let 
the   crop   go   too    far   if  you   desire   to   feed   it  as   hay. 

Teosinte. 

What  about  '-Teosinte,"  its  food  value,  method  of  culture,  and  adapt- 
ability to  our  climate,  character  of  soil  required^ 

Teosinte  is  a  corn-like  plant  of  much  lower  growth  than  Indian 
corn.  It  may  be  of  value  as  a  forage  plant  on  low,  moist,  interior 
lands  in  the  summer  season.  It  is  very  sensitive  to  frost  and  is, 
therefore,  not  a  winter  grower.  It  abhors  drought  and,  therefore,  is 
not  a  plant  for  plains  or  hillsides.  It  was  grown  to  some  extent 
in  California  25  years  ago  and  abandoned  as  worthless  so  far  as  tried. 

Bermuda  Objectionable. 

Bermuda  grass  as  pasture  for  summer  to  supplement  burr  clover  and 
alfilaria  in  zvinter  on  the  cheap  hill  pasture  lands  along  the  coast  or  the 
foothill  ranges  of  the  Sierras.  Stock  like  it  and  do  well  on  it,  and  I 
have  noticed  it  grozcing  in  places  where  it  had  no  water  but  the  little 
rains  of  zvinter  in  southern  California.  So  the  question  occurred  to  me, 
why  should  it  not  be  a  profitable  pasture  for  the  dry  summers  on  the 
coast  or  foothill  ranges  of  the  State? 

Bermuda  grass  will  not  make  summer  growth  enough  on  dry 
pasture  land  to  make  it  worth  having.  It  will  not  make  much  growth 
in  the  rainy  season  because  of  frost,  and  if  it  has  possession  of  the 
ground  it  will  not  allow  either  burr  clover  or  alfilaria  to  make  such 
winter  growth  as  they  will  on  clean  land.  Besides,  this  grass  is 
generally  counted  a  nuisance,  because  it  will  get  into  all  the  good 
cultivated  land  and  it  is  almost  impossible  of  eradication.  Bermuda 
grass  is  of  some  account  on  alkali  land  where  it  finds  moisture 
enough  for  free  growth.  We  would  not  plant  it  in  any  other  situa- 
tion. 

Rye  Grasses  Better  than  Brome. 

/  see  in  an  Eastern  seed  catalogue  "Bromus  Inermis"  very  highly 
spoken  of  as  pasturage.  Do  you  knozu  anything  of  it,  and  do  you  think 
it  would  be  suitable  for  reclaimed  tule  land  in  the  bay  section f 

Both  English  and  Italian  rye  grasses  have  proved  better  than 
Bromus  Inermis  on  such  land  as  you  mention.  The  latter  is  com- 
monly known  as  Hungarian  brome  grass  or  awnless  brome  grass 
and  it  was  introduced  to  this  State  from  Europe  about  25  years  ago 
and  the  seed  distributed  by  the  University  Experiment  Station.  Hun- 
garian brome  may  be  better  on  rather  dry  lands,  although  it  will 
not  live  through  the  summer  on  very  dry  lands  in  this  State,  but 
we  would  rather  trust  the  rye  grasses  on  reclaimed  lands,  providing, 
of  course,  that  they  are  sufficiently  free  from  salt  to  carry  tame  grass 


116  Onk  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

at  all.  On  the  upper  coast  Hungarian  brome  has  been  favorably 
reported  as  an  early-winter  growing  grass  with  comparatively  low 
nutritive  value,  but  is  especially  valuable  because  it  will  grow  in  poor 
soil,  it  is  especially  suited  to  sandy  pasture  and  meadow  lands  and  is 
quite  resistant  to  drought.  It  is  a  perennial  grass,  reproducing  by  a 
stout  rootstock,  which  makes  it  somewhat  difficult  to  eradicate  when  it 
is  not  desired.  It  is  desiralile  to  keep  stock  off  the  fields  during  the 
first  year  to  get  a  good  stand. 

Black  Medic. 

Jl'ill  you  kindly  name  the  enclosed:  also  explain  its  7'ahte  as  foraged 

The  plant  is  black  medic.  It  has  been  very  widely  distributed 
over  the  State  during  the  last  few  years.  It  is  sometimes  called  a 
new  burr  clover,  wdiich  it  somewhat  resembles.  It  is  not  very  freely 
eaten  by  stock  and  is  apparently  inferior  to  burr  clover  for  forage 
purposes.     It  is  a  good  plant  to  plow  under  for  green  manure. 

Crimson  Clover. 

About  crimson  clover  in  California.  Has  it  proved  satisfactory?  If 
so,  can  you  give  me  data  lioiv  to  plant,  etc.? 

Crimson   clover   must   be    sown    after   frost,   for   it   is    tender.  It 

will  give  a   great   show  in  June   and  July  on   low  moist  land.     It  is 

not  good  against  either  frost  or  drought.  It  has  been  amply  tried  in 
California  and  proved  on  the  whole  of  little  account. 

California  Winter  Pastures. 

We  have  a  great  deal  of  pasture  land  on  ivhich  the  native  grasses 
yield  less  feed  each  year.  A  great  part  of  this  land  can  be  cleared  of 
brush  and  stone,  ready  for  the  plozv,  but  ivhat  can  zve  sozv  to  take  the 
place  of  the  native  pasture?  The  ground  in  many  places  is  not  level 
enough  for  alfalfa  and  in  some  places  water  is  not  available.  Can  zve 
break  up  the  land  and  sozi'  pasture  grasses  as  the  farmers  are  exhorted 
to  do  at  the  East?     The  annual  rainfall  is  from  12  to  15  inches. 

The  perennial  grasses  which  they  rely  upon  for  pasturage  in 
the  East  and  which  will  maintain  themselves  from  year  to  year,  will 
not  live  at  all  on  the  dry  lands  of  California,  nor  has  investigation 
of  the  last  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  found  anything  better  for 
these  California  uplands  than  the  winter  growth  of  plants  which 
are  native  to  them.  Such  lands  should  be  better  treated,  first  by  not 
being  overstocked;  second,  by  taking  ofif  cattle  at  the  time  the  native 
plant  needs  to  make  seed,  because,  as  they  are  not  perennial,  they 
are  dependent  upon  each  year's  seed.  After  the  plants  have  seeded, 
the  land  can  be  pastured  for  dry  feed  without  losing  the  seed. 

Of  course,  if  one  has  land  capable  of  irrigation  he  can  grow 
forage  plants,  even  the  grasses  which  grow  in  moist  climates,  like 
the  rye  grasses,  the  brome  grasses  and  the  oat  grasses,  etc.,  which 
will  do  well  if  given  a  little  moisture,  but  it  will  be  a  loss  of  money 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  117 

to  break  up  the  dryer  lands  with  the  idea  of  establishing  perennial 
grasses  upon  them  without  irrigation.  California  pastures  arc  natur- 
ally good.  In  early  days  they  were  wonderful,  but  they  are  re- 
stricted to  growth  during  the  rainy  season,  or  for  a  little  time  after 
that,  and  are  therefore  suited  for  winter  and  spring  pasturage,  while 
the  summer  feeding  of  stock,  aside  from  dry  feed,  should  be  pro- 
vided from  other  lands  where  water  can  be  used.  The  improvement 
of  these  wild  pastures  consists  in  a  more  intelligent  policy  for  their 
production  and  preservation  rather  than  an  effort  to  improve  them 
by  the  introduction  of  new  plants.  Pastures  may,  however,  be  often 
improved  by  clearing  ofT  the  brush  and  harrowing  in  seed  of  burr 
clover,  alfilaria,  etc.,  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season. 

Alfilaria  and  Winter  Pasturage. 

Will  alfilaria  (Erodiuui  cicutariuiii)  grow  tcr/i  on  the  hills  of  Sonoma 
county  partially  covered  zvith  shrubs?  I  zvant  sonicthiiig  that  zuill  be 
food  for  stock  another  year.  I  have  heard  of  alfilaria  and  that  it  grozcs 
well  without  being  irrigated. 

Alfilaria  is  a  good  winter-growing  forage  plant  in  places  where 
it  accepts  the  situation.  It  is  an  annual  and  therefore  does  not  make 
permanent  pasturage  except  where  it  may  re-seed  itself.  On  the 
coming  of  the  dry  season  it  will  speedily  form  seed  and  disappear. 
It  is  therefore  of  no  summer  use  under  the  conditions  which  you 
describe,  nor  is  it  possible  to  secure  any  perennial  grass  which  will 
be  satisfactory  on  dry  hillsides  without  irrigation.  Improved  winter 
pasturage  can  be  secured  by  scattering  seed  of  common  rye  at  the 
beginning  of  the  rainy  season,  or  of  burr  clover,  both  of  which  are 
winter-growing  plants.  Pasturage  is  also  capable  of  improvement 
by  being  careful  not  to  overstock  the  land,  so  that  the  native  annuals 
may  be  able  to  produce  seed  and  provide  for  their  own  succession. 
The  secret  of  successful  pasturage  on  dry  uplands  is  to  improve  the 
winter  growth.  It  is  too  much  to  expect  much  of  them  for  summer 
growth   without  irrigation. 

Grasses  for  Bank-Holding. 

We  desire  a  grass  to  be  used  on  levees,  to  keep  from  zvashing.  Ber- 
muda or  Johnson  grass  are  dangerous  to  farming  lands.  What  zve  desire 
is  a  grass  that  zuill  grozv  in  good  dirt  zvith  no  zvatcr  to  support  it  during 
most  of  the  year,  except  the  annual  rainfall  of  Fresno  county.  Of  course, 
this  grass  will  also  have  to  endure  a  great  deal  of  zvater  during  the  flooded 
scaso)i  of  the  year.  We  have  heard  that  the  Italian  rye  grass  zuould  be 
suitable. 

The  rye  grasses  do  not  have  running  roots;  therefore  are  not 
calculated  to  bind  soil  particles  together  as  Bermuda  grass  does. 
If  you  want  a  binding  grass,  you  must  take  the  chances  of  its  spread- 
ing to  adjacent  lands.  Of  course,  if  you  could  get  a  sod  of  rye  grass 
it   would   prevent   surface   washing   from   overflow,    etc.,   to   a   certain 


118  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

extent.  We  are  not  sure  how  far  it  would  prevent  bank  cutting  by 
the  flowing  water,  for  it  makes  a  bunchy  and  not  a  sod-like  growth. 
It  would  not  live  through  the  summer  unless  the  levee  soil  keeps 
somewhat  moist.  The  only  way  to  determine  whether  you  can  get 
a  permanent  growth  of  it,  will  be  by  making  a  trial.  Seed  should 
be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  becomes  moistened  by  rain.  It  is  a 
very  safe  proposition,  because  if  it  is  willing  to  live  through  the 
summer,  it  is  one  of  the  best  pasturage  grasses  for  places  in  Cali- 
fornia where  it  will  consent  to  grow,  and  it  is  not  liable  to  become 
an  annoyance  by  taking  possession  of  adjacent  land,  because  it  would 
be  readily  killed  by  cultivation. 

Alfalfa  and  Alkali. 

I  sowed  several  acres  of  alfalfa  seed  with  a  disc  this  season  and  none 
of  it  has  come  up.  I  think  the  reason  for  it  not  coming  up  is  that  the 
disc  put  it  into  the  ground  too  deep.  We  sozvcd  some  by  hand  and  it 
came  up  very  well.  Is  there  any  probability  that  later  in  the  season  this 
seed  will  germinate,  or  has  it  rotted  in  the  ground?  Water  stands  within 
three  feet  of  the  surface  and  has  considerable  alkali.  What  can  I  plant 
on  this  land  and  get  a  crop?  It  is  our  intention  to  sow  it  to  alfalfa  next 
fall.    The  land  adjoining,  although  higher,  has  a  good  stand  of  alfalfa  now. 

You  are  right  about  covering  the  alfalfa  seed  too  deeply.  It  is 
not  likely  to  appear.  Your  chance  of  getting  a  durable  stand  of  al- 
falfa on  such  shallow  soil  over  alkali  water  is  not  good,  but  you  can 
hardly  determine  that  without  trying.  Sometimes  conditions  are 
better  than  you  think;  sometimes  worse.  The  plant  itself  is  the 
best  judge.  On  your  lower  land  you  could  probably  get  a  better 
stand  of  rye  grass  than  anything  else — sowing  at  the  beginning  of 
the  rainy  season.  Of  course,  however,  even  that  will  depend  upon 
how  much  alkali  you  have  to  deal  with. 

Alfalfa  on  Adobe. 

Is  adobe  land  good  for  alfalfa?  Is  it  harder  to  start  than  in  other 
soils  or  not?  How  much  seed  is  required  to  sow  an  acre?  Also  state 
what  time  alfalfa  should  be  sowed. 

Alfalfa  will  thrive  on  an  adobe  soil  if  the  moisture  is  kept  right — 
especially  guarding  against  too  much  water  at  a  time.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  irrigate  more  frequently  and  apply  only  as  much  as  can  be 
absorbed  by  the  soil  before  the  hot  sun  comes  on  the  field,  for  that 
scalds  the  plant  badly.  It  is  harder  to  get  a  good  stand  because  of 
the  cracking  and  hardening  of  the  surface.  Sow  about  20  pounds 
to  the  acre  just  as  soon  as  the  soil  comes  into  good  condition — that 
is,  moist  and  warm.  February  and  March  are  usually  the  best 
months,  according  to  the  season  in  the  interior  valleys. 

Alfalfa  and  Soil  Depth. 

Do  you  consider  soil  which  is  from  A  to  6  feet  deep  to  hardpan  of 
sufficient  depth  for  alfalfa?     Is  there  hardpan  in  the  region  of  Lathrop 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  119 

in  San  Joaquin  county,  and  can  it  be  dissolved  by  irrigation,  or  can  any 
good  be  accomplished  by  blozving  holes  at  different  places  to  allow  the 
water  to  pass  to  loiver  levels?  Are  other  crops  affected  by  hardpan  being 
so  close  to  the  surface f 

You  can  grow  alfalfa  successfully  on  land  which  is  from  four 
to  six  feet  deep  if  you  irrigate  rather  more  frequently  and  use  less 
amounts  of  water  each  time,  so  that  the  plant  shall  be  adequately 
supplied  and  yet  not  forced  to  carry  its  roots  in  standing  water. 
The  Eastern  alfalfa  grower  is  fortunate  when  he  gets  half  the  depth 
you  mention,  although  it  does  seem  rather  shallow  in  California. 
Shallow  lands  are  distributed  over  the  valley  quite  widely.  A  deep- 
ening of  the  available  soil  is  usually  accomplished  by  dynamiting, 
especially  so  if  the  hardpan  is  underlaid  by  permanent  strata.  Al- 
falfa will  penetrate  some  kinds  and  thicknesses  of  hardpan  when  it 
is  kept  moist,  but  not  too  wet,  to  encourage  root  growth. 

Winter-growing  green  crops  are  less  affected  by  shallow  soil 
because  they  generally  make  their  growth  while  the  moisture  is 
ample,  if  the  season  is  good. 

Curing  Alfalfa  with  Artificial  Heat. 

It  is  current  rumor  that  "out  in  California  they  are  hauling  alfalfa 
green  and  curing  it  by  artificial  heat,"  thus  reducing  loss  through  bad 
weather  and  producing  a  superior  hay  for  feeding  or  milling  purposes. 

It  is  true  that  alfalfa  is  being  cut  green  and  dried  by  artificial 
heat,  but  this  is  only  being  done  in  preparation  for  grinding.  No 
one  thinks  of  doing  it  for  the  making  of  hay  for  storage  or  for  feed- 
ing. This  method  is  undertaken,  not  because  the  alfalfa  hay  does 
not  dry  quickly  enough  in  the  field,  but  because  after  drying  in  the 
field  so  many  leaves  are  lost  in  hauling  to  the  mill.  We  have  no 
trouble  sun-drying  alfalfa  for  ordinary  hay  purposes;  in  fact,  we 
have  to  be  very  careful  that  it  does  not  get  too  dry. 

Cheap  Preparation  of  Land  for  Alfalfa. 

/  am  about  to  put  a  piece  of  land  into  alfalfa,  and  zcant  to  use  the 
most  economical  system  of  preparing  the  land  for  irrigation.  My  neigh- 
bors tell  me  that  it  will  be  necessary  for  me  to  have  the  land  leveled; 
at  a  cost  of  $6  to  $10  per  acre.  Now  I  am  informed  that  in  Alberta, 
and  some  places  in  California,  they  do  not  go  to  the  expense  of  leveling 
land,  but  use  a  system  of  preparing  laud  for  irrigation  at  a  cost  of  about 
60  cents  per  acre. 

Nothing  except  a  highly  educated  gale  of  wind,  with  discrimin- 
ating cutting  and  filling  ability  of  a  very  high  order,  could  do  it  for 
that  price.  The  cheapest  way  to  prepare  land  for  irrigation  is  the 
contour  check  method,  which  is  largely  used,  or  the  flooding  in  strips 
between  levees  at  right  angles  to  the  supply  ditch;  but  neither  of 
these  could  be  put  in  properly  for  that  money,  even  if  the  land  was 
naturally  in  such  shape  that  a  minimum  amount  of  soil-shifting  is 
necessary. 


120  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Where  Alfalfa  is  Grown. 

In  zuhat  comities  is  alfalfa  most  successfully  grozvn?  By  this  I  mean 
zvhere  three  crops  of  hay  may  he  had  each  grotving  season.  Also,  will 
corn  grow  good  paying  crops  in  same  sections^ 

Alfalfa  is  grown  all  through  the  valleys  and  foothills  of  interior 
California;  also  to  a  certain  extent  in  coast  valleys.  On  suitable 
lands,  three  crops  can  sometimes  be  secured  without  irrigation,  while 
twice  or  three  times  as  many  cuttings  are  secured  on  irrigated  lands 
where  the  frost-free  season  is  particularly  long.  According  to  the 
last  census,  we  are  growing  alfalfa  on  19,104  farms  with  a  total 
acreage  of  484,098.  The  total  value  of  the  product  is  over  $13,000,000. 
Corn  is  widely  grown,  but  is  small  as  compared  with  alfalfa.  It  is 
grown  in  alfalfa  districts  and  in  coast  valleys  where  there  is  not 
much  done  with  alfalfa. 

Sowing  Alfalfa. 

What  is  the  proper  time  to  sow  alfalfa?  Some  advocate  fall  and 
others  spring  solving.     What  seasons  are  given  for  each  solving? 

We  shall  undoubtedly  soon  get  to  sowing  alfalfa  all  the  year 
round  except  in  the  short  season  of  sharp  frosts  and  cold  wet  ground 
in  November,  December  and  January.  If  you  can  get  a  good  start  in 
September  and  October,  all  right;  if  not,  wait  until  February  and 
March,  according  to  the  season.  Where  it  is  never  very  cold  or  wet, 
sow  whenever  moisture  is  right.  There  never  can  be  any  rule  about 
it,  for  localities  will  dififer. 

Foxtail  and  Alfalfa. 

JVill  foxtail  choke  out  and  exterminate  alfalfa?  Some  fields  look  as 
though  the  foxtail  liad  crowded  the  alfalfa  out,  but  I  hold  that  the  alfalfa 
died  from  some  other  cause  and  the  foxtail  merely  took  its  place. 

Foxtail  will  not  choke  out  alfalfa,  providing  soil  and  moisture 
conditions  are  right  for  the  latter,  and  a  good  stand  of  plant  has 
been  secured.  If  anything  is  wrong  with  the  alfalfa,  the  foxtail  will 
be  on  the  alert  to  take  advantage  of  it.  You  will  always  have  fox- 
tail with  you,  and  considerable  quantities  of  it,  perhaps,  in  the  first 
cutting,  because  foxtail  will  grow  at  a  lower  temperature  than  al- 
falfa, and,  therefore,  will  keep  very  busy  during  the  rainy  season, 
while  the  alfalfa  is  more  or  less  dormant,  but  as  the  heat  increases, 
if  the  soil  is  good  and  moisture  ample,  the  alfalfa  will  put  the  fox- 
tail out  of  sight  until  the  following  winter  invites  it  to  make  an- 
other aggressive  growth.  Therefore,  we  answer  that  alfalfa  does 
not  die  from  foxtail,  but  from  some  condition  unfavorable  to  the 
alfalfa,  which  must  be  sought  in  the  soil,  or  in  the  moisture  supply, 
or  traced  back  to  bad  seed,  and  a  poor  stand  at  the  beginning. 

Which  Alfalfa  is  Best? 

/  have  in  Stanislaus  county  ten  acres  of  Arabian  alfalfa,  which  was 
sown  the  first  week  in  April  this  year.     It  was  clipped  in  July  and  irri- 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  121 

gated.  It  is  noiv  about  14  inches  Iiish,  but  looks  sickly,  turns  zuhitc  at 
the  tips,  and  some  dies  dozen.  There  are  several  {ylaces  here  zi'itii  the 
Arabian  alfalfa  on  them  and  zoith  the  same  trouble,  zvhile  the  ordinary 
variety  is  looking  fine  by  the  side  of  it. 

Arabian  alfalfa  usually  makes  a  good  show  at  first  and  begins 
to  run  out  afterward.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  so  long-lived  and  sat- 
isfactory as  the  common  variety.  With  this  prospect  ahead  of  you, 
according  to  present  experience,  it  would  seem  to  be  desirable  to 
plow  the  crop  in  and  seed  again  with  the  common  variety,  or  with 
the  Turkestan,  which  is  proving  the  most  satisfactory  of  the  recently 
introduced  varieties. 

Fall  Sowing  of  Alfalfa. 

We  have  summer-fallozced  land  zvhich  zve  knozv  zvill  grozv  good  al- 
falfa, and  as  zve  have  just  had  four  inches  of  rainfall  upon  it,  zue  lucre 
zvondering  if  zve  could  not  plozv  the  tzventy  acres  and  get  a  stand  upon 
it  in  time  to  stand  the  cold  zccather  this  zinnter.  Do  you  think  this  is 
practicable? 

If  four  inches  of  rain  on  summer  fallow  connects  well  with  the 
lower  moisture  which  a  good  summer  fallow  ought  to  conserve  in 
the  soil,  such  sowing  is  rational;  but  if  the  summer  fallowing  was 
not  done  well,  that  is,  if  it  was  rough  plowing  without  enough  har- 
rowing, as  is  too  often  the  case,  the  four  inches  of  rain  might  not 
be  safe  because  of  the  dry  ground  beneath  waiting  to  seize  the 
moisture  and  so  dry  the  surface  that  sprouting  alfalfa  plants  would 
perish  between  dry  soil  below  and  dry  wind  above.  Fall  sowing 
will  give  enough  growth  to  resist  frost  killing  in  many  places  in  the 
valley  if  the  moisture  in  the  soil  is  enough  to  carry  the  plant  as  well 
as  start  it,  or  if  showers  come  frequently — otherwise  it  is  dangerous, 
not  from  frost  but  from  drouth. 

Alfalfa  Hay  and  Soil  Fertility. 

We  are  feeding  all  our  hay  to  dairy  cozes,  returning  the  manure  to 
the  soil.  At  present  prices  of  hay,  my  neighbors  zvho  sell  theirs,  seem 
to  be  as  zvell  off,  zvith  considerable  less  zvork ;  but  hozv  about  the  future? 
Can  this  soil  be  cropped  indefinitely  and  the  crops  sold,  zvithout  returning 
anything  to  the  land? 

It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  you  can  sell  alfalfa  hay  indefinitely 
without  reducing  the  soil.  It  may  gain  in  nitrogen  by  the  wastes 
of  the  plant,  but  it  will  lose  in  other  constituents  unless  reinforced 
by  fertilization.  No  single  act  can  make  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
soil  as  the  growing  and  feedmg  of  crops  and  return  of  manure  does. 

Dry-Land   Alfalfa. 

I  am  in  a  country  of  strictly  dry  farming.  I  have  a  zuash  or  gulch 
on  my  place  and  zvould  like  to  knozv  if  I  could,  ivith  success,  plant  it  to 
alfalfa  zjuithout  irrigation;  soil  is  sandy  loam,  no  evidences  of  springy 
moisture  at  all.     What  kind  should  I  try? 


122  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Alfalfa  will  endure  much  drouth.  What  it  will  do  in  a  particular 
place  can  only  be  told  by  trying.  Sow  Turkestan  alfalfa.  If  the 
rains  come  early  so  as  to  wet  the  land  down  in  September  and  Oc- 
tober, sow  the  seed  then.  The  endurance  of  the  plant  will  depend 
much'  upon  its  having  a  chance  to  root  deeply  before  the  drouth 
comes  on. 

Inoculating  Alfalfa. 

Is  it  profitable  to  inoculate  alfalfa  seed  before  planting  to  increase 
its  yield?  Can  it  be  done  by  leaching  soil  from  old  alfalfa  ground,  pro- 
viding it  has  been  plowed  up  and  alloived  to  stand  for  a  year?  Are 
commercial  inoculants  a  safe  thing  to  inoculate  with? 

Apparently  alfalfa  does  not  need  inoculation  in  this  State.  Prob- 
ably not  one  acre  in  ten  thousand  now  profitably  growing  alfalfa 
has  ever  had  artificial  introduction  of  germs.  You  can  make  germ- 
tea,  if  you  wish,  of  the  soil  you  describe;  one  year's  exposure  would 
not  destroy  the  germs.  It  is  safe  enough  to  use  commercial  cul- 
tures.    You  will  have  to  decide  for  yourself  whether  it  is  worth  while. 

Irrigating  Alfalfa. 

/  am  making  parallel  ridges  for  alfalfa,  sending  a  full  head  of  water 
down  to  the  end  of  the  field  between  each  ridge.  Should  I  calculate  the 
lands  to  be  mowed  one  at  a  time  in  even  sivaths?  The  mower  being  S-foot 
cut,  would  you  count  on  cutting  a  4  1-2  or  S-foot  swath?  This  soil  is 
sandy,  zvatcr  percolating  rapidly.  The  fall  is  8  feet  to  the  mile.  How 
zvide,  then,  would  you  advise  making  the  ridges  to  suit  the  mower,  and 
to  flood  economically,  using  from  2  to  4  cubic  feet  per  second?  The 
length  of  the  lands  is  across  40  acres. 

Growing  alfalfa  in  long  parallel  checks,  to  be  flooded  between 
the  levees,  is  the  way  in  which  much  alfalfa  is  being  put  in  at  the 
present  time  where  the  land  has  such  a  slope  as  you  indicate.  It  is 
calculated,  however,  to  seed  the  levees  as  well  as  the  check  bottoms, 
and  to  run  the  mowers  across  the  levees,  thus  leaving  no  waste  land 
and  mowing  across  the  whole  field  and  not  between  the  levees  as 
you  propose.  For  that  purpose  these  levees  are  made  low,  not  over 
a  foot  in  height,  calculating  that  they  will  settle  to  about  six  or 
eight  inches,  which  is  sufficient  to  hold  the  water  and  direct  its  flow 
gently  down  the  slope.  There  is,  however,  a  limit  to  the  distance 
over  which  water  can  be  evenly  distributed  in  this  way,  the  differ- 
ence being  dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  soil,  slope,  etc.  A 
length  of  nine  hundred  feet  is  sometimes  found  too  great  for  an  even 
distribution,  and,  for  this  reason,  supply  ditches  at  shorter  intervals 
are  introduced. 

Unirrigated  Alfalfa. 

In  what  part  of  the  State  does  alfalfa  grozv  best  ivithout  irrigation? 

Obviously  the  parts  which  have  the  greatest  rainfall  in  connec- 
tion with  retentive  soil  and  plenty  of  summer  heat.  Alfalfa  grows 
best    without    irrigation    on    "sub-irrigated"    land    where    the    ground- 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  123 

water  is  sufficiently  deep  to  allow  a  deep  rooting  of  the  plant  in 
free  soil  and  yet  not  too  far  down  to  be  readily  reached  by  tlic  deep- 
running  roots.  Good  results  can  be  obtained  with  anywhere  from 
four  to  ten  or  twelve  feet  of  soil  above  water.  On  shallower  soils 
the  plant  is  apt  to  be  short-lived  through  root  troubles.  Unirrigated 
alfalfa  is  also  reduced  by  the  incursions  of  gophers  which  flooding 
at  least  once  a  year  will  destroy. 

Alfalfa  and  Overflow. 

How  long  can  alfalfa  stand  water  without  being  drowned  out?  I 
have  a  piece  of  alfalfa  on  which  the  water  will  stand  for  considerable 
time  in  the  winter  time. 

Alfalfa  while  dormant  will  endure  submergence  for  several 
weeks.  We  do  not  know  exactly  how  long,  but  evidently  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  providing  temperatures  are  too  low  to  invite  growth. 
On  the  other  hand,  growing  alfalfa  is  quickly  and  seriously  injured 
by  overflow. 

No  Nurse-Crop  for  Alfalfa. 

Is  it  advisable  to  use  oats  with  alfalfa  seeds  in  seeding  for  alfalfa? 
Some  growers  of  alfalfa  here  advise  it  strongly,  others  advise  against  it. 

The  general  experience  in  California  is  decidedly  against  using 
oats,  barley,  or  any  other  nurse-crop  with  alfalfa.  Get  the  land  in 
the  best  possible  condition  and  let  the  alfalfa  have  the  full  benefit 
of  it.  The  ripening  of  the  grain  crop  will  do  the  young  alfalfa  plants 
more  harm  by  robbing  them  of  moisture  than  any  protection  which 
the  taller  plant  can  afford. 

Reseeding  Alfalfa. 

This  spring  I  planted  alfalfa  and  only  got  about  half  a  stand  on  some 
of  the  land.  I  tvant  to  resecd  this  fall  and  I  thought  of  putting  more 
seed  on  the  ground  and  then  disc  it  in.  Or  would  you  advise  replanting 
the  land?  What  do  you  think  of  putting  manure  on  young  alfalfa?  Do 
you  think  there  is  any  danger  of  burning  it  out? 

Stir  it  up  with  a  spring  tooth  harrow  or  disc  it  lightly  to  make 
a  nice  seed  bed  and  then  sow  your  seed  as  if  you  were  planting 
alfalfa  for  the  first  time.  This  will  give  you  a  good  seed  bed  and 
will  not  hurt  the  alfalfa  already  growing.  Prepare  the  surface  first 
and  then  sow,  rather  than  disking  in  the  seed.  The  manure  in  mod- 
erate application  would  not  burn  out  the  young  alfalfa  if  properly 
applied  after  the  rains  begin. 

Taking  the  Bloat  Out  of  Alfalfa. 

Will  Italian  rye  grass  and  red  top  clover  be  a  success  under  irrigation 
as  cow  pasture  in  this  county,  either  separately  or  mixed  with  alfalfa:* 
To  sow  in  bare  spots  in  the  alfalfa,  zvould  the  rye  grass  prevent  bloat? 

Italian  rye  grass  and  red  clover  will  make  good  pasturage  under 
irrigation  and  will  make  a  light  with  the  alfalfa  to  the  best  of  their 


124  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

ability.  The  admixture  of  rye  grass  will  reduce  the  danger  from 
bloating.  Red  clover  will  not  have  that  effect,  because  red  clover 
is  a  pretty  good  bloater  on  its  own  account.  This  seems  to  be  the 
function  of  all  the  clovers  according  to  the  rankness  of  their  growth 
at  the  time  that  they  are  grazed. 

The  Time  to  Cut  Alfalfa. 

What  is  the  best  period  to  cut  alfalfa  hay  for  coiv  feed  and  the  best 
method  for  curing? 

The  best  time  to  cut  alfalfa  is  just  when  new  shoots  are  starting 
out  at  the  crown.  This  will  give  the  greatest  yield  of  hay  during  a 
season,  and  the  hay  will  be  much  more  palatable  than  if  the  alfalfa 
is  permitted  to  get  well  into  the  blossoming  period.  The  leaves, 
which  are  the  best  part  of  the  hay,  also  remain  on  better  than  if  the 
stems  are  older.  If  a  person  does  not  care  to  take  the  trouble  to 
find  out  whether  the  new  shoots  are  coming  out  or  not,  he  can  ap- 
proximate the  time  to  cut  fairly  well  by  waiting  until  a  blossom 
here  and  there  appears,  cutting  immediately.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  tell  on  paper  exactly  when  alfalfa  was  properly  cured,  as  that  is 
a  matter  of  individual  judgment.  It  is  usual  to  cut  in  the  morning 
and  rake  into  windrows  in  the  afternoon.  With  the  usual  weather 
in  interior  California  that  stage  of  the  curing  is  completed  by  that 
time.  The  next  da}'  it  can  be  gathered  into  cocks  and  gotten  ready 
to  move.  That  is  about  all  the  curing  that  is  done.  The  size  of 
the  windrows  depends  upon  the  amount  of  hay,  as  thick  hay  should 
be  put  up  in  small  windrows  to  give  plenty  of  circulation  of  air.  It 
is  considered  better  also  to  build  the  cocks  on  raked  land,  otherwise 
the  hay  lying  flat  at  the  bottom  will  not  cure  properly  and  cannot 
be  gathered  up  clean. 

Which  Crop  of  Alfalfa  for  Seed? 

Which  cutting  of  alfalfa  should  be  left  for  seed  bearing!' 

Which  cutting  is  best  for  seed  depends,  of  course,  on  the  way 
the  plant  grows  in  your  locality.  Where  it  starts  early  and  gives 
many  cuttings  in  a  season  with  irrigation  a  later  growth  should  be 
chosen  for  seed  than  with  a  short  season  where  fewer  cuttings  can 
be  had.  The  second  cutting  is  best  in  many  places,  but  O.  E.  Lam- 
bert of  Modesto  after  threshing  about  30  lots  in  one  year  tells  us 
that  some  growers  had  left  second,  some  third  and  some  fourth 
cuttings  for  seed.  He  found  the  second  cutting  very  poor  both  in 
yield  and  grade,  much  of  it  not  being  well  filled  and  the  seed  blighted, 
as  the  growth  of  hay  was  too  heavy.  The  seed  on  third  cutting 
was  good  both  in  grade  and  yield.  Much  of  the  seed  on  fourth  cut- 
ting was  not  matured.  For  good  results  the  stand  should  be  thin. 
Our  drier,  heavier  lands  give  the  best  results,  sub-irrigated  lands  not 
seeding.  All  irrigation  should  stop  with  the  previous  cutting  for 
hay. 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  125 

Siloing  First  Crop  Alfalfa. 

Hozu  about  (cutting  first  cutting  of  alfalfa  and  foxtail  into  the  silo? 
Do  you  think  there  is  a»_v  danger  of  fire  in  a  wooden  silo,  and  do  you 
add  salt  and  zvater  r^'hen  filling,  and  how  long  after  it  is  cut  zuould  you 
advise  putting  it  into  the  silol^ 

Put  it  through  the  silo  cutter  as  soon  as  you  can  get  it  from 
the  field.  Do  not  let  it  cure  at  all,  and  be  sure  to  cut  and  pack  well. 
If  at  all  dry,  use  water  at  the  time  of  filling,  and  some  salt  then 
also,  if  you  desire.  There  is  no  danger  of  firing  if  you  put  it  in 
with  good  moisture,  and  by  short  cutting  and  hard  packing  you 
exclude  the  air.  If  you  do  not  do  this  you  will  get  a  silo  full  of 
manure,  and  possibly  have  a  fire  while  it  is  rotting. 

Soil  for  Alfalfa. 

What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  alfalfa  on  a  dairy  ranch? 

An  ideal  soil  for  alfalfa  is  a  deep  well  drained  soil  into  which 
the  roots  can  run  deeply  without  danger  of  encountering  standing 
water  or  alkali.  Still  we  are  finding  that  alfalfa  is  very  successful 
on  soils  which  are  not  strictly  ideal,  providing  the  moisture  is  sup- 
plied in  such  a  way  that  the  soil  shall  not  be  waterlogged  nor  the 
water  be  allowed  to  remain  upon  the  surface  during  the  hot  weather, 
because  this  kills  the  plant. 

Handling  Young  Alfalfa. 

/  have  alfalfa  that  is  doing  very  well  for  the  first  year.  My  soil  is 
sandy  loam  with  light  traces  of  zvhite  alkali,  although  it  does  not  seem 
to  be  detrimental  to  the  groivth  tlius  far.  I  am  in  the  dairy  business  and 
will  have  by  winter  enough  manure  to  top-dress  the  field.  Would  it  be 
good  policy  to  use  the  manure,  or  would  if  be  more  satisfactory  to  top- 
dress  zvith  gypsum?  Would  it  injure  alfalfa  to  pasture  lightly  after  the 
last  cutting? 

Presumably  your  soil  contains  enough  lime,  and  therefore  the 
application  of  gypsum  at  this  time  of  the  year  would  not  be  neces- 
sary. It  may  be  desirable  to  top-dress  with  gypsum  near  the  end 
of  the  rainy  season  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  the  plant.  Gypsum, 
however,  has  no  efifect  upon  white  alkali.  So  far  as  alkali  goes, 
gypsum  merely  changes  black  alkali  into  white,  thus  making  it  less 
corrosive. 

There  would  be  no  objection  to  pasturing  liglitly  this  fall.  Be 
careful,  however,  to  keep  ofif  the  stock  while  the  land  is  wet  and 
not  to  overstock  so  as  to  injure  root  crowns  by  tramping.  The 
manure  can  ])e  used  as  a  top  dressing  during  the  rainy  season,  un- 
less you  think  it  better  to  save  it  for  the  growth  of  other  crops. 
Alfalfa  is  so  deep  rooting  where  conditions  are  favorable  that  it  does 
not  require  fertilization  usually  on  land  vvliich  has  been  used  for  a 
long  time  for  grain  or  other  shallow-rooting  plants. 


126  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Alfalfa  Sowing  with  Gypsum. 

/  intend  sozuing  alfalfa  this  fall  on  land  that  has  some  very  compact 
hard  spots.  I  aim  to  doctor  these  spots  zvith  gypsnm  at  the  rate  of  about 
1000  pounds  per  acre  and  cultivate  the  gypsum  in  thoroughly  tivo  or  three 
weeks  before  sowing  the  alfalfa  seed.  Would  this  be  all  right?  Is  there 
danger  of  injury  to  seed  by  coming  in  contact  zvith  gypsum f 

Gypsum  will  not  hurt  the  alfalfa  seed.  It  is  not  corrosive  like 
an  alkali.  Whether  it  will  have  time  enough  to  ameliorate  the  soil 
in  the  spots  in  the  period  you  mention  depends  upon  there  being 
moisture  enough   present  at  the  time. 

Red  Clover  for  Shallow  Land. 

What  can  you  say  of  red  clover  on  shallow  soils  in  the  Sacramento 
valley  under  irrigation f     Hozv  many  crops,  etc.? 

Red  clover  is  fine  under  the  conditions  you  describe.  We  could 
never  understand  why  people  do  not  grow  more  of  it  on  shallow 
land  over  hardpan  which  is  free  from  alkali  and  not  irrigated  too 
much  at  a  time.  It  is  good  on  shallow  land  over  water,  where  alfalfa 
roots  decay,  etc.  Though  we  have  no  exact  figures,  we  should  ex- 
pect to  get  about  two-thirds  as  much  weight  from  it  as  from  an 
equally  good  stand  of  alfalfa. 

Clovers  for  High  Ground- Water. 

Where,  in  California,  is  alfalfa  being  raised  successfully  above  a 
water-table  of,  say,  4  feet  or  less,  and  are  any  unusual  means  used  to 
accomplish  this? 

Over  a  high  water-table,  the  alfalfa  plant  will  be  shorter  lived 
according  to  the  shallowness  of  soil  above  water.  One  could  get 
very  good  results  at  from  4  to  6  feet,  whereas  at  2  or  3  feet  the 
stand  of  alfalfa  would  soon  become  scant  through  decay  of  its  fleshy 
root.  Where  the  water  comes  very  near  the  surface,  a  more  shallow 
and  fibrous  rooting  plant,  like  the  Eastern  red  clover,  should  be  sub- 
stituted for  alfalfa  in  California.  It  is  a  very  vigorous  grower  and 
will  yield  a  number  of  crops  in  succession  although  the  water  might 
be  very  near  the  surface,  as  in  the  case  of  the  reclaimed  islands  in 
the  Stockton  and  Sacramento  regions  and  in  shallow  irrigated  soils 
over  bedrock  in  the  foothills  or  over  hardpan  on  the  valley  plains. 
In  this  statement,  freedom  from  alkali  is  presumed. 

Vetches  in  San  Joaquin. 

In  Michigan  I  zvas  familiar  zvith  the  use  of  the  sand  vetch  as  a  forage 
plant,  for  hay,  for  green  manure,  and  as  a  nitrogen  producer.  In  zvestern 
Michigan,  on  the  loose  sandy  soil,  I  sozved  in  September  or  October  20 
pounds  per  acre  for  a  seed  crop  and  40  pounds  per  acre  for  pasture,  hay, 
or  green  manure.     Can  I  expect  good  results  in  Fresno  and  Tulare  coun- 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  127 

ties  without  irrigation?  Will  fall  seeding  the  same  as  wheat  produce  a 
seed  crop?  Will  sand  vetch  grow  on  soil  having  one-half  of  one  per  cent 
alkali? 

Most  of  the  vetches  grow  well  in  the  California  valleys  during 
the  rainy  season;  the  common  vetch,  Vicia  sativa,  and  the  hairy 
vetch,  Vicia  hirsuta,  are  giving  best  results.  The  proper  time  to 
plant  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season.  They  will  stand  some 
alkali,  especially  during  the  rainy  season,  when  it  is  likely  to  be 
distributed  by  the  downward  movement  of  water,  but  it  is  very  easy 
to  find  land  which  has  too  much  alkali  for  them.  These  plants  seed 
well  in  some  parts  of  the  valley,  but  a  local  trial  must  be  made  to 
give  you  definite  information. 

Growing  Vetch  for  Hay. 

How  many  pounds  of  vetch  seed  should  be  sozcii  to  the  acre?  How 
many  tons  per  acre  in  the  crop?  As  I  desire  to  change  my  crop,  having 
to  some  extent  exhausted  the  soil  with  oats,  how  advisable  Zi'ill  it  he 
to  sozi.'  zvheat  zvith  the  vetch  to  give  it  something  to  climb  on?  If  so, 
and  zvheat  is  not  desirable  tinder  the  circumstances,  zvhat?  In  using 
vetch  for  horse  fodder,  hozu  much  barley  should  be  fed  zvith  it  per  day 
for  a  driving  horse?  For  a  draught  horse?  Is  vetch  sozvn  and  har- 
vested at  about  the  same  time  as  other  crops? 

Except  in  very  frosty  places,  vetch  can  be  sown  after  the  rain 
begins  at  about  40  to  60  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre.  The  yield  will 
depend  upon  the  land  and  on  the  moisture  supply,  and  cannot  be 
prophesied.  One  grower  reports  three  tons  of  hay  per  acre  near 
Napa.  If  the  land  usually  yields  a  good  hay  crop,  it  should  yield 
a  greater  weight  of  vetch.  In  mowing  for  hay  purposes  it  is  desirable 
to  raise  the  vetch  off  the  ground  to  facilitate  the  action  of  the  mower. 
Oats  would  be  better  than  wheat,  because  rather  quicker  in  winter 
growth.  If  the  vetch  is  to  be  fed  green,  rye  is  a  good  grain,  but 
not  good  for  hay  purposes  because  of  the  hardness  of  the  stem.  There 
is  no  particular  difference  in  the  plant-food  requirements  of  the  dif- 
ferent grains,  so  that  there  is  nothing  gained  in  that  way  in  the  choice 
of  wheat.  In  feeding  a  combined  vetch  and  barley  hay,  the  ration  is 
balanced;  the  feeding  of  grain  would  not  be  necessary,  except  in  case 
of  hard  work  under  the  same  conditions  grain  is  usually  fed  to  horses 
and  in  about  the  same  amounts.  Vetch  requires  a  longer  season 
than  ordinary  oat  or  barley  hay  crop  to  make  a  larger  growth,  con- 
sequently an   early   sowing  is  desirable. 

Cover  Crop  in  Hop  Yard. 

Will  you  please  give  information  concerning  cozv  peas  or  the  most 
suitable  crop  to  sozv  in  a  hop  field  for  zvinter  grotvth,  to  be  plozved  under 
as  a  fertiliser  in  the  spring?  Also,  zvould  it  injure  the  vines  to  be  cut 
down  before  they  die,  so  as  to  sozv  the  mulch  crop  soon  as  possible  after 
the  hops  are  gathered? 

Cow  peas  would  not  do  for  the  use  which  you  propose,  because 
they  would  be  speedily  killed  by  frost  on  low  lands,  usually  chosen 


128  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

for  hops,  and  would  give  you  no  growth  during  the  frosty  season. 
Probably  there  is  nothing  better  than  burr  clover  for  such  a  winter 
growth.  Hop  vines  should  be  allowed  to  grow  as  long  as  they  main- 
tain the  thrifty  green  color,  because  the  growth  of  the  leaves 
strengthens  the  root.  But  when  they  begin  to  become  weakened 
and  yellow  they  can  be  removed  without  injury.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  wait  for  them  to  become  fully  dead. 

Growing  Cowpeas. 

What  is  the  best  variety  of  cow  peas  for  a  forage  crop?  I  want  a 
variety  which  zvith  irrigation  zvill  come  up  after  it  has  been  cut,  so  as 
to  keep  growing  and  not  be  like  some  ivhich  I  tried  last  year.  They  grew 
up  like  ordinary  garden  peas  and  were  just  a  waste  of  ground. 

Possibly  you  did  not  get  cowpeas;  they  do  not  look  like  garden 
peas  at  all:  they  look  more  like  running  beans,  which  they  are.  The 
crop  is  not  counted  satisfactory  except  on  low,  moist  land,  for  on 
uplands,  even  with  irrigation,  it  does  not  seem  to  behave  right. 
We  do  not  know  that  a  second  growth  can  be  expected,  for  in  the 
Southern  States  it  is  grown  as  a  single  crop,  and  resowing  is  done 
if  a  succession  is  desired,  the  point  being  made  at  the  South  that  the 
plant  is  adapted  to  this  method  of  culture  because  it  grows  so  rapidly 
that  it  can  be  twice  sown  and  harvested  during  the  frost-free  period. 

Cowpeas  in  the  San  Joaquin. 

How  late  in  the  season  zvill  it  be  profitable  to  plant  cowpeas?  What 
is  the  best  manner  of  planting?  Are  there  several  varieties?  If  so, 
which  one  is  best  adapted  to  plant  after  oats?  The  land  can  be  irrigated 
until  about  August  lo.  Will  it  be  advisable  to  plow  up  a  poor  stand 
of  alfalfa  about  July  i  and  plant  to  cozv  peas? 

You  can  plant  cowpeas  all  summer  on  land  which  is  moist  enough 
by  natural  moisture  or  irrigation  to  promote  growth.  What  you  will 
get  by  late  planting  depends  upon  moisture  and  absence  of  an  early 
fall  frost.  If  your  alfalfa  stand  is  bad  enough  to  need  re-sowing  anyway, 
you  may  get  a  good  catch  crop  of  cowpeas  by  doing  as  you  propose. 
If,  however,  you  plow  under  much  coarse  stuff  in  putting  in  the  peas 
the  growth  may  be  irregular.  It  can,  of  course,  be  improved  by 
free  irrigation.  On  clear  land  moderately  retentive  much  more  is 
being  done  in  summer  growth  of  cowpeas  without  irrigation  than 
expected.  There  are  several  good  varieties.  One  of  these  is  the 
Whippoorwill.  Cowpeas  can  be  sown  in  furrows  three  feet  apart  and 
cultivated,  using  about  40  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  or  they  may 
be  broadcasted,  which  takes  about  twice  as  much  seed. 

Cowpeas  and  Canadian  Peas. 

Would  Canadian  field  peas  and  cow  peas  be  valuable  as  a  forage 
crop  for  cows  and  hogs;  also  as  fertiliser?  Please  tell  us  also  when  to 
plant,  how  to  plant,  etc. 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  129 

These  plants  are  of  high  forage  value  as  cow  feed;  also  as  a  soil 
restorative  when  the  whole  crop  is  plowed  under  green  or  wlicn  the 
roots  and  manure  from  feeding  add  to  the  soil.  But  for  either 
purpose  the  result  depends  upon  how  much  growth  you  can  get,  and 
that  should  be  told  by  local  trial  before  any  great  outlay  is  under- 
taken. Canadian  peas  are  hardy  against  frost  and  can  be  broad- 
casted and  covered  with  shallow  plowing  as  soon  as  the  land  is 
moist  enough  from  fall  rains — except  in  very  frosty  parts  of  the 
State.  They  can  also  be  sown  in  drills  to  advantage.  Cow  peas 
are  beans,  and  cannot  be  planted  until  frost  danger  is  over  in  the 
spring.  They  are  only  available  for  summer  feeding,  and  whether 
they  will  be  worth  while  or  not  depends  upon  how  much  moisture 
can  be  held  in  the  soil  for  summer  growth.  They  should  be  sown 
in  drills  and  cultivation  continued  for  moisture  conservation  until  the 
plants  cover  the  ground  too  much  to  get  the  cultivator  through. 

Canadian  or  Niles  Peas. 

/  send  a  sample  of  peas  zuliich  I  bought  for  Canada  field  peas,  and 
they  were  so  labeled.     I  would  like  to  know  what  they  are. 

The  peas  are,  apparently,  one  kind  of  Canada  peas.  There  is 
some  variation  in  Canada  peas,  but  these  are  peas  of  that  class.  Some 
of  the  Canada  pea  are  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  so-called  Niles 
pea  of  California  growth,  and  it  does  not  matter  much,  anyway,  for 
one  is  about  as  good  as  the  other. 

Sunflowers  and  Soy  Beans. 

/  would  like  infoniiatioii  concerning  cultivation,  method  of  feeding 
and  food  value  of  soy  beans.    Also  sunilozvers. 

Soy  beans  are  grown  like  other  beans,  in  rows  which,  for  con- 
venience in  field  culture,  should  be  about  2J/2  feet  apart  and  cul- 
tivated up  to  blooming  time  at  least.  They  should  be  sown  after 
frost  danger  is  over  and  the  weather  is  settled  warm,  for  they  enjoy 
heat.  For  feeding  they  can  be  made  into  hay  before  maturity,  or 
the  beans  can  be  matured  and  prepared  for  feeding  by  grinding.  As 
with  other  beans,  small  amounts  should  be  used  in  connection  with 
other  feeds.  They  are  a  rich  food  and  somew^hat  heavy  on  the 
digestion.  The  same  is  true  of  sunflowers,  except  that  the  seed  is 
richer  in  oil  than  in  protein,  as  beans  are.  Sunflowers  in  field  culture 
are  planted  and  cultivated  like  beans.  The  seed  is  flailed  out  of  the 
heads  after  they  lie  for  a  time  to  dry. 

Jersey  Kale. 

Please  inform  me  hozv  to  plant  Jersey  or  eozv  kale. 

Jersey  kale  can  be  planted  by  thin  scattering  of  seeds  in  rows 
2J^  feet  apart  so  as  to  admit  of  cultivation,  or  the  plants  can  be 
grown  just  as  cabbage  plants  are  and  set  out  lYz  or  3  feet  apart,  the 
squares  to  admit  of  cultivation  both  ways.     The  plant  needs  a  good 


130  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

deal  more  space  than  an  ordinary  cabbage,  for  it  makes  a  tall  free 
growth,  and  space  must  be  had  for  the  growth  of  the  plant  and  for 
going  into  the  patch  for  stripping  off  leaves  and  cultivation.  The 
plant  can  be  started  in  the  rainy  season  whenever  the  land  comes 
into   good   condition.     It  is   a   winter  grower  in    California  valleys. 

Rape  and  Mile. 

Would  rape  be  a  good  pasture  crop  sown  broadcast?  If  so,  at  zvhat 
time  should  it  be  plantedf  Will  Milo  maize  groiv  profitable  in  Sonoma 
county? 

Rape  can  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  land  gets  moist  enough  from 
early  rains  to  start  the  seed  and  hold  the  growth.  It  is  a  winter- 
growing  plant  in  this  State.  We  believe,  however,  you  will  get  better 
results  with  common  vetch,  which  is  also  a  winter  grower  and  more 
nutritious.  If  you  desire  one  of  the  cabbage  family,  kale  will  prob- 
ably serve  you  better  than  rape.  Milo  is  one  of  the  sorghums  and 
will  only  grow  during  the  frostless  period,  like  Kafir,  Egyptian  corn 
and  other  sorghums.  It  will  do  well  with  you,  but  probably  make 
less   growth   than   in   the   interior   valleys. 

Sweet  Clover  Not  an  Alfalfa. 

/  send  you  a  sample  of  alfalfa  which  grows  very  vigorous  here  on 
my  place  spontaneously  and  zvould  like  you  to  give  me  all  the  informa- 
tion about  it  you  zvill,  as  a  feed  for  cozvs  and  hogs.  The  stock  seem  to 
eat  it  well. 

The  plant  is  not  alfalfa  at  all.  It  is  white  sweet  clover  (melilotus 
alba),  and  it  is  usually  considered  a  great  pest  in  alfalfa  fields,  because 
although  it  grows  vigorously  as  you  describe,  it  is  not  generally  ac- 
cepted by  stock,  unless  once  in  awhile  some  one  considers  it  a  good 
thing,  perhaps  because  he  keeps  stock  hungry  enough  to  enjoy  it 
in  spite  of  its  rank  taste  and  smell,  but  usually  when  they  can  get 
alfalfa  they  will  not  pay  much  attention  to  this  plant.  It  is  good 
for  bee  pasturage,  however,  and  is  grown  to  some  extent  for  that 
purpose.  You  probably  had  the  seed  of  it  in  your  alfalfa  seed.  It 
is  a  biennial  and  not  a  perennial  like  alfalfa.  It  will  disappear  if 
you  can  keep  it  from  going  to  seed. 

Sweet  Clover  as  a  Cover  Crop. 

How  about  melilotus  as  a  cover  crop?  Last  year  in  certain  sections 
it  proved  very  successful,  while  in  others  it  did  not  give  satisfaction. 

Melilotus,  by  virtue  of  its  hardiness  in  growing  at  low  tempera- 
tures, its  depth  of  root  penetration,  the  availability  of  the  seed,  the 
smallness  of  the  seed  so  that  the  weight  required  for  the  acre  is 
not  large,  is  to  be  favored  for  a  cover  crop.  The  objections  are  two: 
The  fact  that  it  does  not  seem  to  grow  well  under  some  conditions; 
second,  that  when  a  growth  is  made  it  is  coarse  and  rangey,  and 
the  amount  of  green  stuff  to  the  acre  is  much  less  than  its  appear- 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  131 

ance  would  indicate.  Wc  know  of  cases  where  what  seemed  to  he 
a  good  stand  of  melilotus  yielded  only  about  ten  tons  of  green  stuff 
to  the  acre,  and  what  appeared  to  be  a  less  growth  of  vetches  or 
peas  yielded  from  fifteen  to  twenty  tons  to  the  acre.  And  yet  we 
believe  that  in  some  places  it  will  be  found  extremely  desirable  for 
a  cover  crop  in  harmony  with  what  was  reported  some  time  ago  as 
the    result   of   experiments   by   the    Arizona    Experiment    Station. 

Spineless  Cactus. 

There  seems  to  he  two  distinct  kinds  of  cactus:  One  for  forage,  tha 
other  for  fruit.  It  is  claimed  by  some  people  that  the  spineless  cactus 
is  more  valuable  as  a  forage  plant  than  alfalfa.    What  is  your  opinion^ 

There  are  many  varieties  of  smooth  cacti.  Some  of  them  bear 
higher  quality  fruit  than  others,  and  some  are  freer  growers  and 
bear  a  greater  amount  of  leaf  substance  for  forage  purposes;  there- 
fore, varieties  are  being  developed  which  are  superior  for  fruit  or 
for  forage,  as  the  case  may  be.  Spineless  cactus  is  in  no  way  com- 
parable with  alfalfa,  either  in  nutritive  content  or  in  value  of  crop, 
providing  you  have  land  and  water  which  will  produce  a  good  product 
of  alfalfa.  Cactus  is  for  lands  which  are  in  an  entirely  different 
class  and  which  are  not  capable  of  alfalfa  production. 

Probably  Not  Broom-Corn. 

/  have  a  side-hill  ranch  on  which  I  would  very  much  like  to  raise 
broom  corn.  The  soil  produces  good  grapes,  fruit,  corn,  oats,  peas,  etc., 
and  I  wish  to  know  if  there  are  possibilities  of  broom-strazv. 

All  the  broom-corn  which  has  been  successfully  produced  in 
California  has  been  produced  on  moist,  riverside  land.  The  plant  is 
a  sorghum — consequently  subject  to  frost  injury,  and  can  only  be 
grown  during  the  frostless  season  as  Indian  corn  is.  This  makes  it 
impossible  to  get  the  advantage  of  rainfall  on  winter  upland  and 
necessitates  the  use  of  lowlands,  which  carry  moisture  enough  to 
secure  a  free  growth  of  the  brush,  for  poor  broom-corn  is  worthless 
practically,  being  too  low  priced  to  be  profitable  for  brooms  and 
too  fibrous  to  be  of  value  for  feeding  purposes.  Even  in  a  place 
where  the  plant  grows  well  its  product  is  worthless  unless  properly 
treated,  and  that  requires  full  knowledge  and  a  good  deal  of  work. 

The  Outlook  for  Broom  Corn. 

Broom  corn  is  way  up  in  price,  but  that  is  an  indication  that  everyone 
who  has  ever  grozun  broom  corn  is  likely  to  plant  it  this  year.  IVhat 
is  the  outlook  in  California? 

Nothing  but  a  local  experiment  will  determine  whether  you 
can  get  a  satisfactory  brush  under  the  conditions  prevailing  in  your 
vicinity.  Undoubtedly,  the  high  price  of  broom  corn  will  stimulate 
production,   but   under   quite   sharp   limitations   in   California,   because 


132  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

a  good,  satisfactory  brush  cannot  be  grown  on  dry  plains,  although 
a  good  product  is  made  in  the  river  bottoms  not  far  away.  But 
there  are  so  few  people  in  California  who  understand  how  to  handle 
broom  corn  to  produce  a  good  commercial  article,  and  there  are 
such  rigid  requirements  in  the  size,  quality,  etc.,  that  those  who 
break  into  the  business  without  proper  knowledge  cannot  command 
even  profitable  prices.  Therefore,  if  your  enterprise  is  conducted 
with  a  full  knowledge  and  with  proper  local  conditions  it  would 
not  encounter  such  a  local  disadvantage  in  the  great  increase  of 
the  product  as  one  might  think  at  first. 

Smutty    Sorghum. 

The  various  plantings  of  Egyptian  corn  on  the  ranch  have  turned 
smutty,  very  much  after  the  manner  of  wheat  and  barley.  Is  there  any 
unusual  reason  for  this,  or  could  irrigation  have  caused  it,  and  what  is 
the  best  method  of  preventing  itf 

Sorghum  is  afifected  by  a  smut  similar  to  that  of  other  grains. 
It  is  due  to  the  introduction  of  the  germ  of  the  disease  which 
comes  with  the  use  of  smutty  seed.  Possibly  the  growth  of  the 
smut  may  have  been  promoted  by  moisture  arising  from  soil  ren- 
dered very  wet  by  irrigation,  and  for  this  plant  free  irrigation  should 
not  be  used,  because  it  will  do  more  with  less  water  than  any  other 
plant  we  are  growing,  and  is  likely  to  be  more  thrifty  in  a  drier 
atmosphere.  Get  seed  for  next  year  from  an  absolutely  clean  field; 
get  as  much  growth  as  you  can  without  irrigation,  and  then  use 
water  in  moderate  quantities  as  may  be  necessary,  followed  by  a 
cultivation  for  the  drying  of  the  surface. 

Late-sown  Sorghum. 

Hozv  late  can  Egyptian  corn  be  planted  on  good  sediment  soil  capable 
of  grozving  40  to  50  sacks  of  barley  per  acre  in  good  years  with  ordinary 
rain?  The  Held  was  cut  this  year  for  hay  on  account  of  rank  groivth 
of  ivild  oats,  after  irrigating;  land  is  still  moist.  Can  I  put  in  Egyptian 
corn  with  an  assurance  of  crop,  or  is  it  too  latef  How  much  seed  should 
be  planted  to  the  acre,  also  should  seed  be  drilled  in  or  broad-casted? 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  getting  a  start  of  Egyptian  corn  during 
the  dry  season  providing  the  soil  contains  moisture  enough  to 
germinate  the  seed.  Afterward  the  growth  will  be  more  or  less 
according  to  the  moisture  present  and  will  be  available  for  forage 
purposes.  Whether  a  seed  crop  can  be  had  by  late  sowing  depends 
upon  the  frost  occurrence  in  the  particular  locality,  for  it  only  takes 
a  light  frost  to  destroy  the  plant.  To  get  the  best  results,  particu- 
larly with  late  sowing,  the  seeds  should  be  drilled  in  rows  far  enough 
apart  for  horse  cultivation;  about  forty  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre. 
What  you  get  in  this  way  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  soil   and  the  duration   of  the  frost-freedom. 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  133 

Kafiir  and   Egyptian   Corn. 

Docs  Kaffir  corn  yield  as  well  here  as  Ej^yl^tian  corn?  The  fodder 
is  good  feed  and  the  heads  stand  crtct  and  at  a  more  even  height  from 
the  ground,  which  makes  three  adzvntagcs  over  Egyptian.  Irrigation  in 
either  case  is  the  same. 

The  reasons  you  mention  have  no  doubt  had  mucli  to  do  with 
the  present  popularity'  of  an  upright  plant  like  Kafir  over  a  goose- 
neck like  the  old  dhoura  or  Egyptian,  which  was  the  type  first 
introduced  in  California.  For  years  there  has  been  more  goose- 
neck sorghum  in  the  Sacramento  valley  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  State.  It  may  have  superior  local  adaptions  or  the  people  may 
be  more  conservative.  The  way  to  determine  which  is  better  is 
to  try  it  out,  and,  unless  the  Egyptian  does  better  in  grain  and 
forage  than  the  upright  growers,  take  to  the  grain  which  holds  its 
head   up. 

Sorghums  for  Seed. 

Which  sorghum  is  the  most  profitable  to  plant  for  the  seed  only — 
White  Egyptian,  Brown  Egyptian  or  Yellow  Milo? 

Which  sorghum  is  best  is  apparently  a  local  question  and 
governed  by  local  conditions  to  a  certain  extent.  Egyptian  corn 
(with  the  goose-neck  stem)  has  held  more  popularity  in  your  part 
of  the  Sacramento  than  elsewhere,  while  Kaffir  corn  (holding  its 
head  upright,  as  do  many  other  sorghums)  has  been  for  years  very 
popular  in  the  San  Joaquin.  In  the  Imperial  valley  Dwarf  Milo 
is  chiefl}'  grown  for  a  seed  crop  shattering  and  bird  invasion  are 
very  important.  G.  W.  Dairs  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  says  there 
is  a  very  great  difference  in  the  different  varieties  regarding  waste 
from  the  blackbird.  The  ordinary  white  Egyptian  corn  is  very  easily 
shelled,  and  the  birds  waste  many  times  more  of  the  grain  than  they 
eat,  after  it  has  become  thoroughly  ripe.  The  Milo  maize,  or  red 
Egyptian  corn,  does  not  shell  nearly  so  easily  as  the  white  corn, 
and  the  grain  is  considerably  harder  and  less  attractive  to  the  black- 
birds. In  fact,  blackbirds  will  not  work  in  a  field  of  this  variety  of 
corn  if  there  is  any  white  corn  in  the  vicinity  to  be  had.  The 
dwarf  Milo  maize  yields  much  more  crop  than  the  white  Egyptian 
corn,  or  any  other  variety.  Blackbirds  do  not  damage  the  white 
Kaffir  corn  to  the  extent  they  do  the  ordinary  white  Egyptian  corn. 

Sorghum  Planting. 

What  is  the  best  time  to  sow  Egyptian  corn;  also  hozv  much  per 
acre  to  sow? 

All  the  sorghums,  of  which  Egyptian  corn  is  one,  must  be  sown 
after  frost  danger  is  over — the  time  widely  known  as  suitable  for 
Indian  corn,  squashes  and  other  tender  plants.  Sow  thinly  in  shallow 
furrows  or  "marks,"  3^  or  4  feet  apart  and  cultivate  as  long  as 
you  can  easily  get  through  the  rows  with  a  horse.  About  8  pounds 
of  seed  is  used  per  acre.  If  grown  for  green  fodder,  sow  more 
thickly  and  make  the  rows  closer,  say  2j^  feet  apart. 


134  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Buckwheat  Growing. 

Tzvo  or  three  farmers  in  this  locality  desire  to  plant  biickzvheat.  Not 
having  done  so  heretofore  they  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  soil  and  other 
conditions  that  go  to  make  a  successful  crop. 

The  growing  of  buckwheat  in  California  is  an  exceedingly  small 
afifair.  The  local  market  is  very  limited,  as  most  California  hot 
cakes  are  made  of  wheat  fiour.  There  is  no  chance  for  outward 
shipment,  and  the  crop  itself,  being  capable  of  growing  only  during 
the  frostless  season,  has  to  be  planted  on  moist  lands  where  there 
is  not  only  abundant  summer  moisture  but  an  air  somewhat  humid. 
Irrigated  uplands,  even  in  the  frostless  season,  are  hardly  suitable 
for  the  common  buckwheat,  although  they  may  give  the  growth  of 
Japanese  buckwheat  for  beekeepers  who  use  dark  honey  for  bee 
feeding.  The  Japanese  buckwheat  is  well  suited  for  this  because  it 
keeps  blooming  and  produces  a  scattered  crop  of  seed,  but  this 
characteristic  makes  it  less  suitable  for  a  grain  crop,  and  it  has 
therefore  never  become  very  popular  in  this  State.  We  consider 
buckwheat  as  not  worthy  of  much  consideration  by  California  farmers. 

Variation  in  Russian  Sunflowers. 

In  an  acre  of  mammoth  Russian  sunflowers  there  seems  to  he  threA 
varieties;  some  of  the  plants  bear  but  one  large  floiver;  others  bear  a 
flower  at  the  top  ivith  many  other  smaller  ones  circling  it,  while  others  have 
long  stalks  just  above  the  leaf  stems  from  the  ground  level  all  the  way 
up  to  the  largest  flozver,  which  appears  at  the  very  top.  Are  all  these 
varieties  true  mammoth  Russian  sunflowers?  What  explanation  is  there 
for  these  variations?  Will  the  seed  from  the  variety  carrying  hut  one 
natural  head  produce  seed  that  zvill  reproduce  true  to  the  parent? 

Your  sunflowers  are  probably  only  playing  the  pranks  their 
grandfathers  enjoyed.  If  seed  is  gathered  indiscriminately  from  all 
the  heads  which  appear  in  the  crop,  succeeding  generations  will  keep 
reverting  until  they  return  to  the  wild  type,  or  something  near  it. 
If  there  is  a  clear  idea  of  what  is  the  best  type  (one  great  head  or 
several  heads,  placed  in  a  certain  way)  and  seed  is  continually  taken 
from  such  plants  only  for  planting,  more  and  more  plants  will  be 
of  this  kind  until  the  type  becomes  fixed  and  reversions  will  only 
rarely  appear.  No  seed  should  be  kept  for  planting  without  selecting 
it  from  what  you  consider  the  best  type  of  plant;  no  field  should 
be  grown  for  commercial  seed  without  rogue-ing  out  the  plants 
which  show  reversions  or  bad  variations.  If  you  find  sunflowers  profitable 
as  a  crop  in  your  locality,  rigid  selection  of  seed  should  be  practiced  by 
all  growers,  after  careful  comparison  of  views  and  a  decision  as  to  the 
best  characters  to  select  for. 

Sacaline. 

My  attention  has  been  brought  to  a  plant  called  Sacaline  by  an  East- 
ern plant  dealer.  He  states  that  this  plant  zvill  grozu  in  any  kind  of  soil 
and  needs  practically  no  water. 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  135 

The  plant  Sacaline  (Polygonum  saghalience)  was  introduced  to 
California  as  a  dry-land  forage  plant  about  1893,  and  has  never 
demonstrated  any  particular  forage  value.  It  is  a  browsing  shrub, 
making  woody  stem,  and  cattle  will  eat  it  readily  when  not  pro- 
vided with  better  food.  It  has  possible  value  on  waste  land,  but 
probably  is  in  no  sense  superior  to  the  native  shrubs  of  California 
which  serve  that  purpose.  It  is  a  handsome  ornamental  plant  for 
gardens  or  parks. 

Mossy    Lawns. 

What  zi'ill  destroy  pafclics  of  moss  which  ore  sfyreadiiig  over  our 
lawns  and  apparently  destroying  the  grass'i' 

More  sunlight  would  have  a  tendency  to  discourage  the  growth 
of  moss  on  a  lawn.  If  this  is  riot  feasible,  irrigation  less  frequently 
but  a  more  thorough  soaking  each  time  will  give  the  surface  a  better 
chance  to  dry  off,  and  moss  will  not  grow  on  a  dry  surface.  The 
frequent  spraying  of  a  lawn  with  just  enough  water  to  keep  the 
surface  moist  and  not  enough  water  to  penetrate  deeply  will  tend  to 
the  growing  of  moss  and  to  less  vigor  in  the  growth  of  the  grass. 
A  good  soaking  of  the  soil  once  a  week  is  better  than  daily  sprink- 
ling, but,  of  course,  very  much  more  water  must  be  used  when  you 
only  sprinkle  at  long  intervals.  The  drying  of  the  surface  may  be 
assisted  by  sprinkling  with  air-slaked  lime  and  this  will  discourage 
the  growth  of  moss,  but  of  course  lime  must  not  be  used  in  excess 
or  it  will  also  injure  the  grass. 

Scattering  Grass  Seeds. 

We  live  on  the  west  side  of  Sonoma  valley,  and  zvant  to  seed  some 
of  our  fields  with  a  good  wild  grass.  We  zvant  to  carry  bags  of  it  in 
our  pockets  to  scatter  when  we  ride.  Timothy  zve  should  like,  but  this 
is  not  its  habitat,  is  it?  Can  you  suggest  a  grass  or  grasses  that  would 
do  well  here? 

There  are  really  wild  grasses  worthy  of  multiplication,  but  no 
one  makes  a  business  of  collecting  the  seed  for  sale,  so  that  such 
seeds  are  not  available  for  such  purpose  as  you  describe.  Of  the 
introduced  grasses,  those  which  are  most  likely  to  catch  from  early 
scattered  seed  are  Australian  and  Italian  rye  grasses,  orchard  grass, 
wild  oat  grass  and  red  top.  You  can  get  seed  of  all  these  from 
dealers  in  any  quantity  which  you  desire  at  from  15  to  30  cents  a 
pound,  according  to  the  variety,  and  make  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  each  grass,  which  you  can  carry  and  scatter  as  you  propose. 
Some  of  them  will  catch  somewhere,  particularly  in  spots  where  the 
shade  modifies  the  summer  heat  and  where  seepage  moisture  re- 
duces soil  drought.  You  are  right  about  timothy;  it  is  good  farther 
up  the  coast  and  in  the  mountain  valleys,  but  not  in  3'our  district. 

Poultry  Forage. 

/  have  light  sandy  loam  on  zdiich  I  desire  to  grow  forage  for  chickens. 
It  lies  too  high  for  irrigation. 


136  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

You  could  probably  grow  alfalfa  to  advantage  if  the  soil  is 
deep  and  loose,  getting  less,  of  course,  than  by  irrigation,  but  still 
an  amount  that  would  be  very  helpful  in  your  chicken  business. 
Otherwise,  as  the  land  lies  higher  and  perhaps  out  of  sharp  frosts, 
you  could  grow  winter  crops  of  vetches  and  peas  and  thus  improve 
the  land  while  furnishing  you  additional  poultry  pasture.  The  latter 
purpose  could  also  be  served  by  growing  beets,  cabbage  or  other 
hardy  vegetables  during  the  rainy  season.  This  is  prescribed  be- 
cause of  the  apprehension  that  the  soil  may  not  contain  moisture 
enough   for   summer   cropping  without   irrigation. 

No  Grain  Elevators  in  California. 

Is  California  zvheat  shipped  in  hulk  or  in  bags  at  the  present  time? 

There  are  no  elevators  in  this  State,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
hitherto  grain  cargoes  have  been  acceptable  to  ship  only  as  sacked 
grain,  because  of  claimed  danger  of  shifting  cargo  and  disaster  dur- 
ing the  long  voyage  around  the  Horn.  A  novel  by  Frank  Norris, 
entitled  the  "Octopus,"  describes  a  man  being  killed  by  smothering 
in  a  grain  elevator  at  Port  Costa,  but  there  never  was  an  elevator 
at  that  point,  and  consequently  there  never  was  a  man  killed  by 
getting  under  the  spout  thereof.  Answering  specifically  your  ques- 
tion, California  grain  is  shipped  in  bags  and  not  in  bulk.  It  is 
handled  in  sacks  from  the  separator  to  roadside  or  riverside  storage, 
to  the  loading  point  into  the  ships  and  out  of  the  ships  on  the  other 
side — still  in  bags. 

New  Zealand  Flax. 

Give  information  about  Phormium  tcnax  (Neiv  Zealand  Uax),  which 
I  see  is  imported  to  San  Francisco  in  large  quantities  yearly  for  making 
cordage  and  binder  twine,  and  is  said  also  to  be  the  best  of  bee  pasture. 
Can  I  get  the  plants  on  the  coast,  and  is  California  soil  and  climate  adapted 
to  the  culture? 

New  Zealand  fiax  grows  admirably  in  the  coast  region  of  Cali- 
fornia. You  will  find  it  in  nearly  all  the  public  parks  and  in  private 
gardens,  for  it  is  a  very  ornamental  perennial.  Plants  can  be  had 
in  any  quantity  from  the  California  nurserymen  and  florists.  It 
produces  plenty  of  leaves,  but  we  should  doubt  whether  it  is  floriferous 
enough  for  bee  pasturage  except  where  it  occurs  wild  over  a  large 
acreage.  You  could  get  vastly  more  honey  from  other  plants  grown 
for  that  purpose. 

No  Home-made  Beet  Sugar. 

Is  there  any  simple  process  of  making  sugar  from  beets  so  that  I 
could  make  my  own  sugar  at  home  from  my  oivn  beets  while  sugar  is  so 
very  expensive  to  buy? 

There  is  no  simple  way  of  making  beet  sugar.  It  can  only  be 
economically  done  in  factories  costing  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
dollars. 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  137 

Don't  Get  Crazy  About  Special   Crops. 

/  zvant  information  about  flax  as  a  cro[y.  I  have  been  luwing  some 
land  graded  for  alfalfa  and  I  have  had  to  'Miit  so  long  I  am  nozv  doubt- 
ing the  advisability  of  seeding  it  all  under  these  conditions  until  fall,  as 
hot  zveather  will  soon  come.  I  zvant  some  good  crop  to  plant  in  the  checks 
and  give  tzvo  good  irrigations.  What  zvould  you  think  about  rye  for  sirazu 
for  horse  collars?  I  do  not  zvish  to  consider  corn,  as  the  stalks  zvould 
be  troublesome.  Potatoes  zvould  necessitate  disarranging  the  land  too 
much  and  zvould  require  more  attention  than  I  am  in  shape  to  give  just 
nozo.  Everybody  grozvs  zvheat,  barley  and  oats.  I  zvant  something  that 
I  can  get  a  special  market  for. 

To  succeed  with  flax,  the  seed  ought  to  be  sown  in  tlie  fall,  or 
early  winter,  in  California,  and  the  plant  will  make  satisfactory 
growth  under  about  the  same  conditions  that  suit  barley  or  wheat. 
Spring  sowing  would  not  give  you  anything  worth  while  except  on 
moist  bottom  land.  Rye  is  also  a  winter-growing  grain.  To  grow 
rye  straw  for  horse  collars  would  be  unprofitable  unless  you  could 
find  some  local  saddler  who  could  use  a  little,  and  it  is  probable  you 
could  not  get  a  summer  growth  of  rye  which  would  give  good  straw, 
even  if  you  had  a  market  for  it.  You  could  get  a  growth  of  stock 
beets,  field  squashes,  or  pumpkins  for  stock  feeding.  In  fact,  the 
latter  w-ould  give  you  most  satisfaction  if  you  have  stock  to  which 
they  can  be  fed  to  advantage.  Sorghum  is  our  chief  dry-season  crop, 
but  that  makes  stalks  like  corn  and  would,  therefore,  be  open  to  the 
same  objections.  Has  it  never  occurred  to  you  that  people  grow 
the  common  crops,  not  because  they  are  stupid,  but  because  those 
are  the  things  for  which  there  is  a  constant  demand  and  the  best 
chance  for  profitable  sale?  Eflforts  to  supply  special  markets  are 
worth  thinking  of,  but  seldom  worth  making  unless  you  know  just 
who  is  going  to  buy  the  product  and  at  what  price. 

California  Insect  Powder. 

What  part  of  the  plant  is  used  in  making  insect  pozvdcr  and  hozv  is 
it  prepared?    Is  the  plant  a  perennial?    What  soil  suits  it  best? 

The  plant  is  Pyrethrum  cinerariaefolium  and  has  a  white  blossom 
resembling  the  common  marguerite.  The  powder  is  made  of  the 
petals  and  the  seed  capsules  or  heads  are  thoroughly  dried  in  the 
sun  and  ground  with  a  run  of  stone  such  as  was  formerly  used  for 
making  flour.  The  powder  must  be  finely  ground,  and  only  good 
powder  can  be  made  in  a  mill  suitably  equipped  for  that  purpose. 
The  plant  is  a  perennial,  beginning  to  bloom  the  second  year  from 
seed.  It  will  grow  in  any  good  soil  with  ordinary  cultivation.  Twenty- 
five  years  ago  it  was  thought  that  a  great  California  industry  might 
be  established  on  that  basis,  but  there  is  at  the  present  time  but  one 
establishment,  which  grows  about  all  the  material  it  can  use  on  its 
own  ranch  in  Merced  county,  on  a  fine,  deep  loam  which  the  plant 
seems  to  enjoy. 


138  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Rotations  for  California. 

/  wish  to  work  out  a  practical  system  of  crop  rotation  suitable  to  the 
climate  and  conditions  obtaining  in  southern  California.  Would  you 
recommend  different  systems  for  grain  lands  and  irrigated  lands? 

General  schemes  of  rotation  are  hard  to  work  out  in  California. 
They  must  be  locally  revised  according  to  the  local  temperature  con- 
ditions and  the  local  market  also.  We  should  endeavor  to  find  out 
what  has  been  successfully  grown  on  similar  lands  to  those  which 
you  have  in  mind  and  arrange  the  rotation  on  that  basis,  from  what 
we  knew  of  the  relation  of  the  different  plants  to  soil  fertility,  etc. 
You  cannot  make  out  a  satisfactory  local  scheme  for  the  seven  coun- 
ties in  southern  California,  because  of  the  widely  different  behavior 
of  the  separate  plants  in  the  different  parts  of  the  district.  You  can 
hardly  work  on  the  basis  of  soil  character:  moisture  supply  and  tem- 
peratures are  more  determinative.  Surely  you  should  make  a  scheme 
for  irrigated  land  different  from  that  for  dry  land,  and  it  could  not 
only  be  a  longer  rotation,  but  many  more  plants  would  be  available 
for  its  service. 

Berseem? 

Berscem  has  been  introduced  into  this  country  from  Egypt,  and  ivould 
like  to  knotv  if  it  has  been  used  in  California,  and  if  it  has  come  u{^ 
to  expectations. 

Berseem  is  an  annual  clover  supposed  to  grow  only  during  the 
summer  time.  It  has  been  tried  widely  in  California,  but  practically 
abandoned  because  it  will  not  grow  during  the  rainy  season.  It  is  in 
no  way  comparable  to  alfalfa,  which  is  a  deep  rooted  perennial  plant, 
nor  would  it  be  comparable  with  burr  clover  as  a  winter  grower  on 
lands  which  have  a  moderate  amount  of  water. 

Heating  and  Fermentation. 

Please  explain  why  dampness  zvill  cause  anything  like  hay,  Egyptian 
corn  or  other  like  products  to  heat. 

Heating  is  due  to  fermentation,  which  means  the  action  upon 
the  vegetable  substance  of  germs  which  begin  to  grow  and  multiply 
after  their  kind  whenever  conditions  favor  them.  The  earlier  stages 
of  this  action  is  called  "sweating,"  and  it  is  beneficial  as  in  the  case 
of  hay,  tobacco,  dried  fruits,  etc.,  as  is  commonly  recognized — resulting 
in  what  is  known  as  curing — and  it  is  the  art  of  the  handler  of  such 
products  not  to  allow  the  action  to  go  beyond  what  may  be  called 
the  normal  "sweating."  If  not  checked  by  proper  handling,  which 
involves  drying,  cooling,  etc.,  fermentation  will  continue,  and  (Jther 
germs  will  find  conditions  suitable  for  them  to  take  up  their  work  of 
destruction,  and  this  new  action  produces  higher  temperature  still, 
and  if  not  checked  by  cooling  or  drying  or  otherwise  making  the 
substance  inhospitable  to  them,  "heating"  will  result,  and  thence  on- 
ward rapidly  to  decay,  if  they  have  everything  their  own  way. 


Grains  and  Forage  Crops  139 

Moonshine  Farming. 

What  influence,  if  any,  has  the  moon  on  plant  grozvthf  Are  there 
any  reliable  data  of  experiments  available? 

Very  prolonged  investigation  by  the  Weatlicr  Bureau  determined 
that  no  difiference  was  found  in  planting  in  different  phases  of  the 
moon.  If  we  paid  any  attention  to  it,  we  should  plant  in  the  dark 
of  the  moon,  so  as  to  get  the  plants  up  so  that  they  could  use  the 
little  more  light  which  the  moon  gives.  It  is,  however,  more  import- 
ant to  have  the  soil  right  than  the  moon. 


PART  IV.    SOILS,  FERTILIZERS 
AND  IRRIGATION 


What  is  Intensive  Cultivation? 

From  whom  can  I  receive  instruction  or  information  regarding  in- 
tensive   cultivation? 

Intensive  cultivation  has,  so  far  as  we  know,  not  been  made  the 
subject  of  any  treatise  or  publication.  Intensive  cultivation  means 
the  use  of  a  maximum  amount  of  labor,  fertilizers  and  water  for  pro- 
ducts of  high  market  value.  There  is  no  better  example  of  intensive 
cultivation  in  the  world  than  is  afiforded  by  the  practice  of  the  best 
market  gardeners  and  producers  of  small  fruit.  Next  to  them,  on 
larger  areas,  would  be  the  policies  and  methods  of  the  fruit  growers 
of  California.  Intensive  culture,  then,  is  not  a  particular  method  or 
system,  but  consists  in  doing  the  best  thing  for  maximum  production 
of  any  product  which  is  valuable  enough  to  spend  the  large  outlay 
which  is  required.  Just  how  this  cultivation  should  be  done  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  product  and  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
in  whatever  locality  intensive  cultivation  may  be  undertaken. 

Can  a  Man  Farm? 

Is  it  possible  for  a  man  with  a  fczu  acres  rvell  cared  for  and  care- 
fully tilled  to  make  a  living  and  pay  out  on  a  purchase  of  land  at  $125 
per  acref  Could  a  good  carpenter  make  wages  and  take  care  of  a  small 
tract  for  a  year  or  so  until  well  under  way? 

We  consider  $125  per  acre  for  good  land  with  a  good  water  right 
a  fair  price.  Financing  a  farming  operation  depends  more  upon  the 
man  than  upon  the  good  land.  There  are  men  who  would,  by  intensive 
cultivation  of  salable  stuff  and  right  use  of  water,  pay  oflE  the  full 
value  of  the  land  from  its  produce  in  a  couple  of  years.  Others  will 
never  pay  of?.  Of  course,  the  nearer  you  can  come  to  paying  for  the 
land  at  the  beginning,  and  the  more  money  you  have  for  improve- 
ments, the  more  satisfactory  your  situation  should  be  in  every  respect. 
There  is  a  good  chance  for  carpenter  work  in  colony  development, 
and  considerable  self-help  could  be  secured  in  that  way.  You  do  not 
say  whether  you  know  anything  about  farming.  Farming  is  a  very 
complicated  business  and  a  basic  knowledge  derived  from  experience 
is  a  proper  foundation  to  build  upon  in  the  light  of  the  fuller  applica- 
tion of  scientific  principles. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and   Irrigation  141 

Soil  Depth  for  Citrus  Trees. 

/  liaz'c  a  top  soil  of  rich  loam  containing  small  rocks  and  pebbles. 
Underneath  it  is  zvashed  gravel,  rocks,  boulders,  yelloiv  sand,  etc.  What 
is  the  limit  as  to   thinness  before   trees  will  not  grow,  or  thrive? 

Orange  trees  arc  growing  quite  successfully  on  shallow  soil  over- 
lying clay  where  the  use  of  water  and  fertilizers  was  carefully  adjusted 
so  as  to  keep  the  trees  supplied  with  just  the  right  amount.  Under 
such  conditions  a  good  growth  may  he  expected  so  long  as  this  treat- 
ment is  maintained.  There  should  he,  however,  not  less  than  three 
feet  of  good  soil  to  make  the  large  expenditure  necessary  to  estahlish 
an  orange  orchard  permanently  productive,  and  all  the  depth  you  can 
get  beyond  three  feet  is  desirable.  We  question  the  desirability  of 
planting  orange  trees  even  on  a  good  soil  overlying  gravel,  rocks  or 
sand.  Roots  will  penetrate  such  material  only  a  short  distance  usu- 
ally. It  is  almost  impossible  with  such  a  leachy  foundation  to  keep 
the  surface  soil  properly  moistened  and  enriched.  You  are  apt  to  lose 
both  water  and  fertilizer  into  the  too  rapid  drainage. 

Soils  and  Oranges. 

/  find  this  entire  district  underlaid  with  hardpan  at  various  depths, 
from  I  to  6  feet  down,  and  of  various  thicknesses.  This  hardpan  is 
more  or  less  porosis  and  seeps  up  water  to  some  extent,  but  is  too  hard 
for  roots  to  penetrate.  It  is  represented  to  me  that  if  this  hard  pan 
is  down  from  4  to  5  feet  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  thd 
orange  tree  or  its  producing.    Is  4  or  5  feet  of  the  loam  enough? 

Four  or  five  feet  of  good  soil  over  a  hardpan,  which  was  some- 
what porous,  is  likely  to  be  satisfactory  for  orange  planting.  There 
has  been  trouble  from  hardpan  too  near  the  surface  and  from  the  oc- 
currence of  a  hardpan  too  rich  in  lime,  which  has  resulted  in  yellow 
leaf  and  other  manifestations  of  unthrift  in  the  tree.  Discussion  of 
this  subject  is  given  on  page  434  of  the  fifth  edition  of  our  book  on 
"California  Fruits,"  where  we  especially  commend  a  good  depth  of 
"strong,  free  loam."  This  does  not  mean  necessarily  deep.  The  or- 
ange likes  rather  a  heavier  soil,  while  a  deep  sandy  loam  is  preferred 
by  some  other  fruits.  If  you  keep  the  moisture  supply  regular  and 
right  and  feed  the  plant  with  fertilizers,  as  may  be  required,  the  soil 
you  mention  is  of  sufficient  depth — if  it  is  otherwise  satisfactory. 

Oranges  Over  High  Ground  Water. 

Does  California  experience  shozu  that  citrus  trees  can  be  groivn  upon 
land  successfully  zvhere  the  zvater-lcvcl  is  6  feet  from  the  surface;  that 
is,  where  water  is  found  at  that  level  at  all  seasons  and  does  not  appear 
to  rise  higher  during  the  rainy  season? 

We  do  not  know  of  citrus  trees  in  California  with  ground-water 
permanently  at  six  feet  below  the  surface.  If  the  soil  should  be  a  free 
loam  and  the  capillarity  therefore  somewhat  reduced,  orange  trees 
would   probably   be    permanently   productive.      If   the   soil    were    very 


142  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

heavy,  capillary  rise  might  be  too  energetic  and  saturate  the  soil  for 
some  distance  above  the  water-level.  In  a  free  soil  without  this  danger 
the  roots  could  approach  the  water  as  they  find  it  desirable  and  be 
permanently  supplied.  Orange  trees  are  largely  dependent  upon  a 
shallow  root  system,  the  chief  roots  generally  occupying  the  first  four 
feet  below  the  surface.  From  this  fact  we  conclude  that  deep  rooting 
is  not  necessary  to  the  orange,  although  unquestionably  deep  rooting 
and  deep  penetration  for  water  are  desirable  as  allowing  the  tree  to 
draw  upon  a  much  greater  soil  mass  and  therefore  be  less  dependent 
upon  frequent  irrigations  and  fertilizations. 

Depth  of  Ground- Water. 

Is  there  probable  harm  from  water  standing  12  feet  from  the  surface 
in  an  orcJiard?  Also  probable  age  of  trees  before  any  effect  of  said 
water  zvould  be  felt  by  them?  The  soil  is  almost  entirely  chocolate 
dry  bog. — IV.  E.   Wahtoke. 

Water  at  twelve  feet  from  the  surface  is  desirable,  and  water  at 
that  point  will  be  indefinitely  desirable  for  the  growing  of  fruit  trees. 
Of  course,  conditions  would  change  rapidly  as  standing  water  might 
approach  more  nearly  to  the  surface,  a  condition  which  has  to  be  care- 
fully guarded  against  in  irrigation.  But  it  can  come  nearer  than  twelve 
feet  without  danger. 

Summer  Fallow  and  Summer  Cropping. 

/  own  some  Itill  land  zvliich  lias  been  run  down  by  continuous  hay 
cropping.  I  am  told  that  a  portion  must  be  summer-falloived  each  year, 
but  I  zvisJi  to  grow  some  summer  crop  on  this  fallow  ground  that  will 
both  enrich  the  soil  and  at  the  same  time  furnish  good  milk-producing 
feed  for  cows — thoroughly  cultivating  it  betiveen  the  rozvs.  What  crop 
would  be  best?  I  am  told  the  common  Kaffir  or  Egyptian  corn  are 
both  soil   enriching  and   milk  producing. 

If  you  grow  a  summer  crop  on  the  summer-fallowed  upland,  you 
lose  the  chief  advantage  of  summer  fallowing,  which  is  the  storing  of 
moisture  for  the  following  year's  crop.  A  cultivated  crop  would  waste 
less  moisture  than  a  broadcast  crop,  surely,  but  on  uplands  without 
irrigation  it  would  take  out  all  the  moisture  available  and  not  act  in 
the  line  of  a  summer  fallow. 

Kaffir  corn  is  not  soil  enriching.  It  has  no  such  character.  It 
probably  depletes  the  soil  just  as  much  as  an  ordinary  corn  or  hay 
crop.  It  is  a  good  food  to  continue  a  milking  period  into  the  dry  sea- 
son, but  you  must  be  careful  not  to  allow  your  cattle  to  get  too  much 
green  sorghum,  for  it  sometimes  produces  fatal  results.  We  do  not 
know  anything  which  you  can  grow  during  the  summer  without  irriga- 
tion which  would  contribute  to  the  fertility  of  your  land.  If  you  had 
water  and  could  grow  clover  or  some  legume  during  the  summer  sea- 
son, the  desired  effect  on  the  soil  would  be  secured. 


SoiLSj  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  143 

Soils  and  Crop  Changes. 

Peas  and  sivcct  peas  do  not  grow  well  continuously  in  the  same 
ground.  I  know  this  practically  in  my  experience,  but  in  no  book  have 
I  ever  found  zvhy  they  do  not  grozv. 

There  are  two  very  gfood  reasons  why  some  classes  of  plants  can- 
not be  well  grown  continuously  in  the  same  piece  of  ground.  One  is 
the  depletion  of  available  plant  food,  the  other  the  formation  of  in- 
jurious compounds  by  the  plants,  or  the  gradual  increase  of  fungoid, 
bacterial  or  animate  pests  in  the  soil,  which  finally  become  abundant 
enough  to  seriously  hinder  growth.  DifTerent  plants  take  the  plant 
foods,  as  nitrogen,  lime,  potash,  phosphates,  etc.,  in  different  propor- 
tion. More  important,  perhaps,  is  the  fact  that  the  root  acids  that 
extract  these  foods  are  of  different  types  and  strength.  Thus  before 
many  seasons  it  may  happen  that  most  of  the  plant  food  of  one  or 
more  kinds  may  be  nearly  exhausted  as  far  as  that  kind  of  plant  is 
concerned  that  has  grown  there  continually,  while  there  would  be 
plenty  of  easily  available  food  for  plants  with  a  different  kind  of  root 
system  and  different  root  acids,  etc.  This  is  one  reason  why  rotation 
of  crops  is  so  good;  it  gives  a  combination  of  root  acids  and  root  sys- 
tems to  the  soil  during  a  term  of  years,  and  it  also  frees  the  soil  from 
one  certain  kind  of  organism  because  it  cannot  survive  the  absence 
of  the  particular  plants  on  which  it  thrives. 

Summer-Fallow  Before  Fruit  Planting. 

/  recently  bought  a  ranch  at  Sheridan,  Placer  county,  and  was 
intending  to  put  lo  acres  to  peaches  and  50  acres  to  ivhcat  or  barley, 
but  the  residents  tell  me  that  the  land  must  be  summer-fallowed  before 
I  can  do  anything.  The  soil  is  a  red  loam  and  has  not  been  plowed 
for  six  years. 

Your  local  advisers  are  probably  right  as  to  the  necessity  for  sum- 
mer-fallowing in  order  to  conserve  moisture  from  a  previous  year's 
rainfall  and  to  get  the  land  otherwise  into  good  condition.  There 
might  be  such  a  generous  rainfall  that  an  excellent  crop  might  come 
without  summer-fallowing,  and  the  results  will  depend  upon  the  rain- 
fall. If  it  should  be  small  in  amount,  you  might  not  recover  your  seed. 
By  the  same  sign  you  might  not  get  much  growth  on  your  fruit  trees, 
but  you  could  help  them  by  constant  cultivation  and  by  using  the 
water-wagon  if  the  season  should  be  very  dry.  Therefore,  you  are 
likely  to  do  better  with  trees  than  with  grain  without  summer-fallow- 
ing, although  even  for  trees  it  is  a  decided  advantage  to  have  more 
moisture  stored  in  the  subsoil  and  the  surface  soil  pulverized  by  more 
tillage. 

Defects  in  Soil  Moisture. 

/  have  apricot  trees  thai  appear  to  be  almost  dead;  all  but  a  very 
fezv  small  green  leaves  are  gone,  and  they  look  bad,  still  I  think  they 
might  be  saved  if  I  only  knew  what  to  do. 


144  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Presumably  your  apricot  tree  is  suffering  from  too  much  standing 
water  during  the  dormant  season,  or  from  a  lack  of  water  during  the 
dry  season.  The  remedy  would  be  to  correct  moisture  conditions, 
either  by  underdrainage  for  winter  excess  or  by  irrigation  for  summer 
deficiency.  When  a  tree  gets  into  a  position  such  as  you  describe,  it 
should  be  cut  back  freely  and  irrigation  supplied,  if  the  soil  is  dry,  in 
the  house  that  the  roots  may  be  able  to  restore  themselves  and  pro- 
mote a  new  growth  in  the  top. 

Dry  Plowing  for  Soil  and  Weed  Growth. 

Is  there  any  scientific  reason  to  support  the  belief  that  it  is  injurious 
to  the  soil  to  dry-plozv  it  for  seeding  to  grain  this  fall  and  winter? 
Will  dry-plowing  nozv  cause  a  worse  growth  of  filth  after  the  rains  than 
the  customary  fallowing  in  the  spring?  Should  the  stubble  be  burned,  at* 
plowed  under? 

The  points  against  dry-plowing  to  which  you  allude  may  arise 
from  two  claims  or  beliefs:  first,  that  turning  up  land  to  the  sun  has 
a  tendency  to  "burn  out  the  humus";  second,  that  dry-plowing  may 
leave  the  land  so  rough  and  cloddy  that  a  small  rainfall  is  currently 
lost  by  evaporation  and  leaves  less  moisture  available  for  a  crop  than 
if  it  is  plowed  in  the  usual  way  after  the  rains.  The  first  claim  is 
probably  largely  fanciful,  so  far  as  an  upturning  in  the  reduced  sun- 
shine of  the  autumn  goes.  Whatever  there  may  be  in  it  would  occur 
in  vastly  increased  degree  in  a  properly  worked  summer-fallow,  and 
even  that  is  negligible,  because  of  the  greater  advantage  which  the 
summer-fallow  yields.  There  may  be  cases  in  which  one  will  get  less 
growth  on  dry-plowing  than  on  winter  plowing,  if  the  land  is  rough  and 
the  rain  scant,  and  yet  dry-plowing  before  the  rains  is  a  foundation 
for  moisture  reception  and  retention — if  the  land  is  not  only  plowed, 
but  is  also  harrowed  or  otherwise  worked  down  out  of  its  large  cloddy 
condition.  When  that  is  done,  dry-plowing  may  be  a  great  help  to- 
ward early  sowing  and  large  growth  afterward.  As  for  weeds,  dry- 
plowing  may  help  their  starting,  but  that  is  an  advantage  and  not 
otherwise,  because  they  can  be  destroyed  by  cultivation  before  sowing. 
If  the  land  is  full  of  weed  seed,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  start  it  and 
kill  it.  The  trouble  with  dry-plowing  probably  arises,  not  from  the 
plowing,  but  from  lack  of  work  enough  between  the  plowing  and  the 
sowing.  Stubble  should  often  be  burned:  it  depends  upon  the  soil  and 
the  rainfall.  On  a  heavy  soil  with  a  good  rainfall,  plowing-in  stubble 
is  an  addition  to  the  humus  of  the  soil,  because  conditions  favor  its 
reduction  to  that  form,  and  there  is  moisture  enough  to  accomplish 
that  and  promote  also  a  satisfactory  growth  of  the  new  crop. 

Treatment  of  Dry- Plowed  Land. 

We  are  plowing  a  piece  of  light  sandy  mesa  land,  dry,  zvhich  has 
considerable  tarweed  and  other  zvecds  growing  before  plowing.  Which 
zvould  be  best,  to  leave  the  land  as  it  is  until  the  rains  come  and  then 
harrow,  or  harrow  now?     Would  the  land  left  without  harrowing  gather 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and   Irrigation  145 

any  elements  from   the  air  before  rain  comes?     The  above  land  is  for 
oat  hay  and  beans  next  season. 

Roll  down  the  tar-wced,  if  it  is  tall  and  likely  to  be  troublesome, 
and  plow  in  at  once  so  that  decay  may  begin  as  soon  as  the  land  gets 
moisture  from  the  rain.  It  would  be  well  to  allow  the  land  to  lie  in 
that  shape,  and  disc  in  the  seed  without  disturbing  the  weeds  wiiich 
have  been  plowed  under.  If  all  this  is  done  early,  with  plenty  of  rain 
coming  there  is  likely  to  be  water  enough  to  settle  the  soil,  decay  the 
weeds,  and  grow  the  hay  crop.  Of  course,  such  practice  could  not  be 
commenced  much  later  in  the  season.  The  land  gains  practically  noth- 
ing from  the  atmosphere  by  lying  in  its  present  condition.  If  there 
is  any  appreciable  gain,  it  would  be  larger  after  breaking  up  as  pro- 
posed. In  dry  farming,  harrowing  or  disking  should  be  done  immedi- 
ately after  plowing,  not  to  produce  a  tine  surface  as  for  a  seed  bed, 
but  to  settle  the  soil  enough  to  prevent  too  free  movement  of  dry  air. 
If  your  rainfall  is  ample,  the  land  may  be  left  looser  for  water-settling. 

For  a  Refractory  Soil. 

What  can  I  do  to  soil  that  dries  out  and  crusts  over  so  hard  that  it 
won't  permit  vegetable  growth?  A  liberal  amount  of  stable  manure  has 
been  applied,  and  the  land  deeply  plowed,  harrozved  and  cultivated,  but 
as  soon  as  water  gets  on  it,  it  forms  a  deep  crust  on  evaporation.  Will 
guano  help,  or  is  sodium  nitrate  or  potash  the  thing? 

None  of  the  things  you  mention  are  of  any  particular  use  for  the 
specific  purpose  you  describe.  Keep  on  working  in  stable  manure  or 
rotten  straw,  or  any  other  coarse  vegetable  matter,  when  the  soil  is 
moist  enough  for  its  decay.  Plow  under  all  the  weeds  you  can  grow, 
or  green  barley  or  rye,  and  later  grow  a  crop  of  peas  or  vetches  to 
plow  in  green.  Keep  at  this  till  the  pesky  stuflf  gets  mellow.  If  you 
think  the  soil  is  alkaline,  use  gypsum  freely;  if  not,  dose  it  with  lime 
to  the  limit  of  your  purse  and  patience,  and  put  in  all  the  tillage  you 
can  whenever  the  soil  breaks  well. 

More  Manure,  Water  and  Cultivation  Required. 

/  have  a  small  place  on  a  hillside,  with  broivn  soil  about  one  to  two 
feet  deep  to  hardpan  and  I  am  getting  rather  discouraged,  as  so  many 
things  fail  to  come  up  and  others  grow  so  very  slowly  after  they  art* 
up.  A  neighbor  planted  some  dahlia  roots  the  same  time  I  did.  Only 
one  of  mine  came  up  and  it  is  not  in  bloom  yet,  while  several^  of  his 
have  been  blooming  for  some  weeks  and  are  ten  times  as  large  in  mass 
of  foliage  as  mine  zmth  its  lone  stalk  and  one  little  bud  on  the  top.  Peas 
came  up  and  kept  dying  at  the  bottom  zvith  blossoms  at  the  top  tilt 
they  were  four  or  Hve  feet  high,  but  I  never  could  get  enough  peas  for 
a  mess.     Can  you  help  me  get  this  thing  right? 

Use  of  stable  manure  and  water  freely.  Your  trouble  probably 
lies  either  in  the  lack  of  plant  food  or  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  This, 
of  course,  is  supposing  that  you  cultivate  well  so  that  the  moisture 
you   use   shall   not   be   evaporated   and    the    ground   hardened   by   the 


146  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

process.  During  the  summer  a  good  surface  application  of  stable 
manure  to  which  water  can  be  applied  would  be  better  than  to  work 
manure  into  the  soil,  which  should  be  done  at  the  beginning  of  the 
rainy  season.  As  your  soil  is  so  shallow  it  will  be  well  for  you  to 
stand  along  the  side  of  the  plant  much  of  the  time  with  a  bucket 
of  water  in  one  hand  and  a  shovel  of  manure  in  the  other. 

Planting  Trees  in  Alkali  Soil. 

My  land  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  both  the  black  and  white 
alkalies,  the  upper  .two  feet  being  a  rather  heavy,  sticky  clay,  the  next 
three  feet  below  being  tine  sand,  containing  more  or  less  alkali,  while 
immediately  underneath  this  sand  is  a  dense  black  muck  in  which,  sum- 
mer and  winter,  is  found  the  ground-water.  Do  you  think  the  following 
method  of  setting  trees  would  be  advantageous.  Excavate  for  each  tree 
a  hole  three  feet  in  diameter  and  three  feet  deep.  Fill  in  a  layer  of  three 
or  four  inches  of  coarse  hay,  forming  a  lining  for  the  excavation.  Then 
■fill  the  hole  zvith  sandy  loam  in  ivhich  the  tree  is  to  be  set.  The  sandy 
loam  zuould  give  the  young  tree  a  good  start,  while  the  lining  of  hay 
would  break  up  the  capillary  attraction  between  the  Ulled-in  sand  and 
the  ground-zvater  in  the  surrounding  alkali-charged  soil. 

The  fresh  soil  which  you  put  in  would  before  long  be  impreg- 
nated through  the  surface  evaporation  of  the  rising  moisture,  which 
your  straw  lining  would  not  long  exclude.  The  trees  would  not  be 
permanently  satisfactory  under  such  conditions  as  you  describe, 
though  they  might  grow  well  at  first.  It  would  be  interesting,  of 
course,  to  make  a  small-scale  experiment  to  demonstrate  what  would 
actually  occur  and  it  would,  perhaps,  give  you  a  chance  to  sell  out 
to    a   tenderfoot. 

Planting  in  Mud. 

Why  does  ground  lose  its  vitality  or  its  growing  qualities  when  it  is 
plowed  or  stirred  zvlicn  zvet,  and  does  this  act  in  all  kinds  of  soil  in  the 
same  way?  We  are  planting  a  fig  and  olive  orchard  at  the  present  time, 
but  some  zvcre  planted  zvhen  the  ground  was  extremely  zvet.  The  holes 
were  dug  before  the  rain  and  after  a  heavy  rain  they  started  to  plant. 
After  placing  the  trees  in  the  holes  they  filled  them  half  full  zvith  wet 
dirt,  in  fact  so  zvet  that  it  was  actually  slush.  What  would  you  advise 
under  the  circumstances  and  zvhat  can  be  done  to  counteract  thisf  We 
have  not  finished  filling  in  the  holes  since  the  planting  zvas  done,  which 
was  about  a  week  ago. 

The  soil  loses  its  vitality  after  working  when  too  wet,  because 
it  is  thrown  into  bad  mechanical  (or  physical)  condition  and  there- 
fore becomes  difficult  of  root  extension  and  of  movement  of  moist- 
ure and  air.  How  easily  soil  may  be  thrown  into  bad  mechanical 
condition  depends  upon  its  character.  A  light  sandy  loam  could  be 
plowed  and  trees  planted  as  you  describe  without  serious  injury  per- 
haps, while  such  a  treatment  of  a  clay  would  bring  a  plant  into  the 
midst   of  a   soil   brick  which   would   cause  it  to   spindle   and  perhaps 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and   Irrigation  147 

to  fail  outright.  The  best  treatment  would  consist  in  keeping  the 
soil  around  the  roots  continually  moist,  yet  not  too  wet.  The  upper 
part  of  the  holes  should  be  filled  loosely  and  the  ground  kept  from 
surface  compacting.  The  maintenance  of  such  a  condition  during 
the  coming  summer  will  probably  allow  the  trees  to  overcome  the 
mistake  made  at  their  planting,  unless  the  soil  should  be  a  tough 
adobe  or  other  soil  which  has  a  disposition  to  act  like  cement. 

Electro-Agriculture. 

Kindly  tell  me  of  any  one  zvho  is  zvorking  upon  the  application  of 
electricity  to  stimulating  agricultural  grozvtii — especially  here  on  the  Coast. 
A  friend  zvho  has  done  some  zvork  in  this  line  seeks  to  interest  me.  I 
have  seen  notices  of  this  zvork,  and  have  read  of  Professor  Arrhenius 
stimulating  the  mental  activity  of  children,  etc.,  but  I  desire  more  definite 
information,  if  possible.     Does  the  idea  seem  to  you  to  be  feasible? 

So  far  as  we  know,  there  has  been  no  local  trial  of  the  effect  of 
electric  light  in  stimulating  plant  growth.  Much  has  been  done  with 
it  in  Europe  and  in  this  country.  There  is  much  about  it  in  Euro- 
pean scientific  literature.  It  is  perfectly  rational  that  increased 
growth  should  be  attained  by  continuous  light  in  the  same  way, 
though  in  less  degree  than  occurs  in  the  extreme  north  during  the 
period  of  the  midnight  sun.  It  is  known  that  moonlight,  to  the 
extent  of  its  illumination,  increases  plant  growth,  and  it  has  been 
amply  demonstrated  that  light  is  light,  just  as  heat  is  heat,  irre- 
spective of  the  source  thereof.  Of  course,  the  commercial  advantage 
must  be  sought  in  the  relative  amount  of  increased  growth  and  the 
selling  value  of  whatever  is  gained  in  point  of  time. 

High  Hardpan  and  Low  Water. 

What  detriment  is  hardpan  if  14  inches  belozv  the  surface  and  in  some 
places  12  inches?  I  have  been  plozving  so  I  could  set  peach  trees,  but  1 
have  been  told  that  they  zvill  not  grozv.  I  zjuould  like  your  opinion' about 
it.  I  intended  to  blast  holes  for  the  trees,  and  the  zvater  is  30  feet  from 
surface.  The  top  soil  is  red  sandy  and  clay  mi.vcd,  but  it  zi'orks  zrry 
easily. 

You  cannot  expect  much  from  trees  on  such  a  shallow  soil  over 
hardpan  without  breaking  it  up,  because  the  soil  mass  available  to 
the  trees  is  small;  also  because  the  shallow  surface  layer  over  hard- 
pan  will  soon  dry  out  in  spite  of  the  best  cultivation,  because  there 
is  no  moisture  supply  from  below.  If  such  a  soil  should  be  selected 
for  fruit  trees  at  all,  the  breaking  through  the  hardpan  by  dynamite 
or  otherwise  is  desirable,  and  irrigation  will  be,  probably,  indis- 
pensable. 

Depth  of  Cultivation. 

/  zvould  be  glad  to  knozv  zdtethcr  in  cultivating  an  orchard  a  light- 
draft  harrozv  could  profitably  be  used,  zvhich  cultivates  three  and  a  half 
inches  deep?  I  have  used  another  cultivator,  and  try  to  have  it  go  at 
least  seven  inches. 


148  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

A  depth  of  3  1-2  inches  is  not  satisfactory  in  orchard  cultiva- 
tion, although  there  may  be  some  condition  under  which  greater 
depth  would  be  difficult  to  obtain  because  of  root  injury  to  trees, 
which  have  been  encouraged  to  root  near  the  surface.  Both  experi- 
ence and  actual  determinations  of  moisture  in  this  State  show  that 
cultivation  to  a  depth  of  5  inches  conserves  twice  as  much  moisture 
in  the  lower  soil  as  can  be  saved  by  a  3-inch  depth  of  cultivation 
under  similar  soil  conditions  and  water  supply.  It  is  all  the  better 
to  go  7  inches  if  young  trees  have  been  treated  that  way  from  the 
beginning. 

Alfalfa   Over  Hardpan. 

/  have  land  graded  for  alfalfa  and  some  of  the  checks  are  low  and 
water  will  stand  on  the  low  checks  in  the  winter.  There  is  on  an  average 
from  tzvo  to  three  feet  of  soil  on  top  of  hardpan  and  hardpan  is  about 
tzvo  feet  thick.  Will  water  drain  off  the  loiv  checks  if  the  hardpan  is 
dynamited,  and  will  this  land  grow  alfalfa  with  profit? 

Yes ;  much  of  the  hardpan  in  your  district  is  thin  enough  and  under- 
laid by  permeable  strata  so  that  drainage  is  readily  secured  by  break- 
ing up  the  hardpan.  Standing  water  on  dormant  alfalfa  is  not  in- 
jurious. 

Trees  Over  High-Water. 

Which  are  the  best  fruit  trees  to  plant  on  black  adobe  soil  with  water 
table  between  3  and  4  feet  from  surface?  The  soil  is  very  rich  and  pro- 
ductive. The  land  is  leveled  for  alfalfa  also;  will  the  alfalfa  disturb  the 
growth  of  trees? 

We  would  not  plant  such  land  to  fruit  at  all,  except  a  family 
orchard.  The  fruits  most  likely  to  succeed  are  pears  and  pecans. 
On  such  land  alfalfa  should  not  hurt  trees  unless  it  is  allowed  to 
actually  strangle  them.  The  alfalfa  may  help  the  trees  by  pumping 
out  some  of  the  surplus  water. 

Soil  Suitable  for  Fruits, 

7  am  sending  samples  of  soil  in  which  there  are  apricots  and  prunes 
growing,  and  ask  you  to  examine  it  with  reference  to  its  suitability  for 
other  fruits.     Will  lemons  thrive  in  this  soil? 

It  is  not  necessary  to  have  analysis  of  the  soil.  If  you  find  by 
experience  that  apricot  and  prune  trees  are  doing  well,  it  is  a  dem-- 
onstration  of  its  suitability  for  the  orange,  so  far  as  soil  is  con- 
cerned. The  same  would  also  be  a  demonstration  for  soil  suitability 
for  the  lemon  because  the  lemon  is  always  grown  on  orange  root. 
The  thing  to  be  determined  is  whether  the  temperature  conditions 
suit  the  lemon  and  whether  you  have  an  irrigation  supply  available, 
because  citrus  fruits,  being  evergreen,  require  about  fifty  per  cent 
more  moisture  than  deciduous  fruits,  and  they  are  not  grown  suc- 
cessfully anywhere  in  this  State  without  irrigation,  except,  possibly, 
on  land  with  underflow.  The  matter  to  determine  then  is  the  surety 
of  suitable  temperatures  and  water  supply. 


Soils,  Fertilizf.rs  and  Irrigation  149 

For  Blowing  Soils. 

/  am  going  to  dry-sow  rye  late  this  fall.  I  want  some  leguminous 
plant  to  seed  with  the  rye  for  a  wind-break  crop,  not  to  plow  under. 
The  land  varies  from  heavy  loam  to  blozv-sand.  I  have  under  considera- 
tion sivcet  clover,  burr  clover,  vetches.  I  see  occasional  stray  plants  of 
sweet  clover  {the  white-blossomed)  growing  in  the  alfalfa  on  both  hard 
and  sandy  soil.  I  read  in  an  Eastern  bee  journal  that  sweet  clover  can 
be  sowed  on  hard  uncultivated  land  ivith  success.  Could  I  groiv  it  on 
the  hard  vacant  spots  that  occur  in  the  alfalfa  fields? 

You  can  sow  these  leguminous  plants  all  along  during  the  earlier 
part  of  the  rainy  season  (September  to  December)  except  that  they 
will  not  make  a  good  start  in  cold  ground  which  does  not  seem  to 
bother  rye  much.  But  on  sand  you  are  not  likely  to  get  cold,  water- 
logged soil,  so  you  can  put  in  there  whenever  you  like — the  earlier 
the  better,  however,  if  you  have  moisture  enough  in  the  soil  to  sus- 
tain the  growth  as  well  as  start  it.  We  should  sow  rye  and  common 
vetch.  Sweet  clover  will  grow  anywhere,  from  a  river  sandbar  to 
an  uncovered  upland  hardpan,  but  it  will  not  do  much  if  your  vacant 
spots  are  caused  by  alkali. 

More  Than  Dsmamite  Needed. 

/  have  some  peculiar  land.  People  here  call  it  cement.  It  does  not 
take  irrigation  water  readily,  and  zvatcr  will  pass  over  it  for  a  long  time 
and  not  wet  down  more  than  an  inch  or  so.  When  really  zvet  it  can  be 
dipped  up  with  a  spoon.  Hardpan  is  down  about  24  to  36  inches.  I  have 
tried  blowing  up  between  the  vines  with  dynamite,  and  see  little  differ- 
ence.    Can  you  suggest  anything  to  loosen  up  the  soil? 

You  could  not  reasonably  expect  dynamite  to  transform  the 
character  of  the  surface  soil  except  as  its  rebelliousness  might  in 
some  casjs  be  wholly  due  to  lack  of  drainage — in  that  case  blasting 
the  hardpan  might  work  wonders.  But  you  have  another  problem, 
viz:  to  change  the  physical  condition  of  the  surface  soil  to  prevent 
the  particles  from  running  together  and  cementing.  This  is  to  be 
accomplished  by  the  introduction  of  coarse  particles,  preferably  of 
a  fibrous  character.  To  do  this  the  free  use  of  rotten  straw  or 
stable  manure,  deeply  worked  into  the  soil,  and  the  growth  of  green 
crops  for  plowing  under,  is  a  practical  suggestion.  Such  treatment 
would  render  your  soil  mellow,  and,  in  connection  with  blasting  of 
the  hardpan  to  prevent  accumulation  of  surplus  water  over  it,  would 
accomplish  the  transformation  which  you  desire.  The  cost  and  profit 
of  such  a  course  you  can  figure  out  for  yourself. 

Is  Dynamite  Needed? 

/  have  an  old  prune  orchard  on  river  bottom  lands;  soil  about  15  or 
16  feet  deep.  Quite  a  number  of  trees  have  died,  I  presume  from  old 
age.  I  desire  to  remove  them  and  to  replace  them  zvith  prune  trees.  I 
have  been  advised  to  use  dynamite  in  preparing  the  soil  for  the  planting 
of  the  new  trees. 


150  One  Thousand  Questions  tn  Agriculture 

Whether  you  need  dynamite  or  not  depends  upon  the  condition 
of  the  sub-soil.  If  you  are  on  river  flats  with  an  alluvial  soil,  rather 
loose  to  a  considerable  depth,  dynamiting  is  not  necessary.  If,  by 
digging,  you  encounter  hardpan,  or  clay,  dynamiting  may  be  very 
profitable.  This  matter  must  be  looked  into,  because  the  failure  of 
trees  on  river  lands  is  more  often  due  to  their  planting  over  gravel 
streaks,  which  too  rapidly  draw  of?  water  and  cause  the  tree  to  fail 
for  lack  of  moisture.  In  such  cases  dynamite  would  only  aggravate 
the  trouble.  Dynamiting  should  be  done  in  the  fall  and  not  in  the 
spring.  The  land  should  have  a  chance  to  settle  and  readjust  itself 
by  the  action  of  the  winter  rains;  otherwise,  your  trees  may  dry  out 
too  much  next  summer. 

Improving  Heavy  Soils. 

What  is  adobe?  What  kind  of  plants  zvill  grozv  best  in  adobe?  In 
this  Rcdii'ood  City  I  find  clay-like  soil  zvhich  looks  very  dark  and  heavy. 
What  kind  of  plants  will  grow  best  in  this  soil? 

The  term  adobe  does  not  mean  any  particular  kind  of  soil.  It 
is  applied  locally  to  clay  and  clay-loam  soils  indiscriminately.  It 
generally  signifies  the  heaviest,  stickiest,  crackingest  soil  in  the 
vicinity.  Most  plants  will  grow^  well  on  heavy  soils  if  they  are  kept 
from  getting  too  dry  and  too  full  of  water.  This  is  done  by  using 
plenty  of  stable  manure  and  other  coarse  stuf?  to  make  the  soil  more 
friable,  which  favors  aeration,  drainage,  root  extension  and  plant 
thrift.  Friability  is  also  promoted  by  the  use  of  lime  and  by  good 
tillage.  The  particular  soil  to  which  you  refer  is  a  black  clay  loam 
which  can  be  improved  in  all  the  ways  stated.  It  is  a  good  soil  for 
most  flowers  and  vegetables  if  handled  as  suggested.  You  can  get 
hints  of  what  does  best  by  studying  your  neighbors'  earlier  plantings. 

For  a  Reclaimed  Swamp. 

/  have  land,  formerly  a  pond  zvhich  dried  up  in  the  summer  months. 
It  has  been  thoroughly  drained  nozv  for  several  years.  The  land  sur- 
rounding it  is  good  fertile  soil  and  produces  good  crops.  On  this  piece, 
however,  crops  come  up  and  look  fairly  well  until  about  two  inches  high 
when  they  turn  yellozv  and  die.  Mesquite  grass  and  strazvberrics  seem 
to  be  the  only  crops  that  zvill  live,  and  they  do  not  do  at  all  zvell.  Sorrel 
grows  abundantly  in  the  natural  state. 

Apparently  the  reclaimed  land  which  you  speak  of  needs  liming 
to  overcome  the  acidity  in  the  soil.  Common  builders'  lime  applied 
at  the  rate  of  1000  pounds  to  the  acre  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy 
season  ought  to  make  the  land  much  more  productive  and  the  soil, 
at  the  same  time,  more  friable.  Deep  plowing  with  aeration  will 
also  help  the  land,  and  this  treatment  can  begin  at  once  if  the  soil 
is  workable.  Other  additions  of  lime  can  be  made  later  as  they  may 
be  required  to  make  the  improvement  permanent. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and   Irrigation  151 

Improving  Uncovered  Subsoil. 

What  is  the  best  treatment  for  spots  that  have  been  scraped  in  level- 
ing for  irrigation F 

The  land  can  be  improved  by  plowing  deeply  and  turning  in 
stable  manure  or  green  alfalfa  or  any  other  vegetable  matter  which 
may  decay,  rendering  the  soil  rich  in  humus  and  more  friable.  Of 
course,  it  will  take  some  time  to  accomplish  this  impruvemcnt,  and 
it  is  necessary  that  there  be  moisture  enough  present  to  cause  the 
material  to  decay  in  order  that  the  improvement  may  be  secured. 

Sand  for  Clay  Soils. 

Will  beach  sand  do  adobe  or  clay  soil  any  good?  It  gets  hard  at 
times  and  I  thought  that  if  I  zuas  to  put  beach  sand  in  the  ground  the 
salt  in  the  sand  would  do  the  ground  harm. 

It  is  certainly  desirable  to  mix  sand  with  heavy  soil  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  it  lighter — that  is,  better  drained  and  more  friable 
and  therefore  improving  it  for  the  growth  of  plants.  Sometimes 
beach  sand  contains  a  good  deal  of  salt,  which,  however,  is  readily 
removed  by  fresh  water,  and  sand  hauled  and  exposed  to  the  rains 
rapidly  loses  any  excess  of  salt  it  may  contain.  Probably  with  such 
an  amount  of  sand  as  you  are  likely  to  use  to  mix  with  your  adobe, 
there  is  no  danger  at  all  from  salt.  Even  if  such  sand  should  con- 
tain considerable  salt,  if  applied  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  sea- 
son it  would  be  so  quickly  distributed  as  to  not  constitute  a  menace 
to  the  growth  of  plants.  The  worst  adobe  can  be  transformed  into  a 
most  beautiful  garden  soil  by  the  application  of  sand  and  stable 
manure. 

Plowing  from  or  Towards. 

Which  is  the  proper  zi^'ay  to  pknv  an  orchard.^  First  to  plozi.'  to  the 
trees  and  then  to  ploiv  from  them,  or  to  plow  from  the  trees  and  then  to 
them,  and  your  reasons?  I  have  had  many  arguments  with  )ny  neighbor 
farmers. 

There  is  difiference  of  opinion  everywhere  as  to  whether  the  first 
plowing  should  be  toward  or  away  from  the  trees.  In  places  where 
the  soil  is  pretty  heavy  and  the  rainfall  is  apt  to  be  quite  large, 
plowing  toward  the  trees  and  opening  a  dead  furrow  near  the  center 
seems  to  promote  rapid  distribution  of  surplus  water.  If  the  rainfall 
is  less  and  arrangements  for  deep  penetration  are  more  necessary, 
the  plowing  can  well  be  away  from  the  trees,  so  as  to  direct  the 
water  toward  the  row.  It  is,  of  course,  exceedingly  important  in 
this  case,  that  the  land  should  be  worked  back  before  it  has  a  chance 
to  dry  out  by  exposure  and  this  is  one  of  the  chief  objections  to 
the  practice,  because  one  is  apt  to  let  the  land  lie  away  from  the 
trees,  hoping  for  a  late  rain  which  may  not  come.  Whatever  the- 
oretical advantages  there  may  be  in  either  of  these  methods,  they 
can  only  be  secured  by  the  greatest  care  to  avoid  the  dangers  which 


152  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

attend  them.  This  uncertainty  is  the  reason  why  people  so  gener- 
ally disagree  as  to  which  is  the  best  practice,  and  they  are  right  in 
disagreeing. 

Dry  Plowing  and  Sowing. 

/  dry-plowed  my  grain  -field  to  a  depth  averaging  seven  inches;  it 
turned  up  very  rough.  I  then  disked  and  harroived  it,  but  it  is  still  very 
rough.  I  intended  to  drill  the  seed,  zvait  for  sufficient  rain,  and  harrow 
to  a  satisfactory  condition,  but  have  been  advised  to  put  no  implement 
on  after  the  drill,  as  a  harrow  would  spoil  the  work  done  by  the  drill, 
and  a  slab  or  roller  would  cause  the  ground  to  bake.  If  I  wait  for  rain 
to  work  the  soil  before  drilling,  it  will  bring  the  seeding  too  late. 

You  have  probably  done  a  pretty  good  job  of  dry  work.  If  the 
land  is  still  too  rough  for  the  drill,  we  should  broadcast  and  harrow 
again.  It  is  not  desirable  to  harrow  afler  the  drill,  and  to  roll  or 
rub  is  likely  to  smooth  too  much,  because  the  land  would  bake  or 
crust  after  the  heavy  rains.  This  would  cause  loss  of  moisture  and 
it  is  therefore  better  to  leave  the  surface  a  little  rough.  You  can  roll 
lightly  after  the  grain  is  up,  if  the  surface  seems  to  need  closing  a 
little. 

Artesian  Water. 

I  have  a  large  tract  of  adobe  soil,  a  black  clay  top  soil.  For  about 
five  months  in  the  year  there  is  not  sufficient  water  on  the  place.  I  have 
sunk  wells  in  different  parts,  but  with  very  poor  results,  the  further  we 
luent  down  the  drier  and  harder  the  soil  got.  What  little  water  we  did 
obtain  was  unfit  for  domestic  use.  Can  you  give  me  an  idea  as  to  what 
might  be  the  result  of  an  artesian  well  in  such  soil? 

Artesian  water  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  soils.  It  is  a  deeper 
proposition  than  that.  Artesian  water  comes  from  gravel  strata 
overlaid  with  impervious  layers  of  rock  or  clay  in  such  a  way  that 
water  in  the  gravel  is  under  pressure  because  the  gravel  leads  up 
and  away  to  some  point  where  water  is  poured  into  it  by  rain  falling 
or  snow  melting  on  mountain  or  high  plateau.  As  the  water  cannot 
get  out  of  this  gravel  until  you  punch  a  hole  in  its  lid,  its  efifort 
will  be  to  shoot  up  to  something  less  than  the  elevation  at  which  it 
gained  entrance  to  this  gravel — as  soon  as  your  puncture  gives  it  a 
chance.  Geologists  who  know  the  locality  may  be  able  to  tell  you 
that  you  have  little  or  no  chance,  but  no  one  can  tell  you  whether 
you  have  a  good  chance  or  not  until  he  has  tested  the  matter  by 
boring.  The  quality  of  the  artesian  water  is  determined  by  its  dis- 
tant source  and  the  bad  water  you  have  found  is  therefore  no  indi- 
cation of  the  quality  of  what  may  be  below  it.  No  one  should  enter 
an  artesian  undertaking,  except  to  tap  a  stratum  of  known  depth, 
without  a  long  purse.  Probably  one  in  a  thousand  of  the  bores 
made  into  the  crust  of  the  earth  yields  as  many  gallons  of  artesian 
water  as  gallons  of  various  liquids  used  in  boring  it — and  yet  some 
of  them  are  good  wells  to  pump  from  because  they  pierce  other  strata 
carrying  water,  but  not  under  pressure  causing  it  to  rise. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  153 

Treatment  of  Alkali. 

/  am  advised  that  in  some  cases  alkali  may  be  drained  and  that  in 
others  it  is  treated  zuith  gypsum. 

Gypsum  is  not  a  cure  for  alkali.  l)ut  simply  a  means  of  trans- 
forming black  alkali  into  white,  which  is  less  corrosive  and  there- 
fore less  destructive  to  plants,  but  there  may  be  easily  too  much 
white  alkali  present — so  much  that  the  land  would  be  made  sterile 
by  it.  You  cannot  remove  alkali  by  flooding  unless  two  conditions 
can  be  assured:  first,  that  the  water  itself  is  free  from  alkali  before 
application  to  the  land;  second,  that  you  underdrain  the  land  at  a 
depth  of  from  three  to  four  feet  with  tile,  so  that  the  fresh  water 
on  the  surface  can  flow  through  the  soil  into  the  drains,  carrying 
away  from  the  land  the  alkali,  which  it  dissolves  in  its  course.  To 
flood  land  even  with  fresh  water  without  making  arrangements  for 
carrying  off  the  alkali  water  below,  is  to  increase  the  alkali  on  the 
surface  as  the  water  evaporates,  and  such  treatment  does  land  in- 
jury rather  than  benefit.  We  cannot  give  you  any  estimate  as  to 
the  cost  of  washing  out.  It  depends  altogether  upon  local  condi- 
tions: whether  you  use  hand  work  or  machinery  for  the  ditching, 
and  what  your  water  will  cost. 

Alkali,  Gypsum  and  Shade  Trees. 

Kindly  advise  how  to  apply  gypsum,  and  hozv  much,  to  heavy,  sticky 
soil,  the  worst  sort  of  adobe  and  heavily  saturated  with  alkali.  We  zvant 
to  plant  shade  trees.  Eucalyptus  and  peppers  succeed  fairly  well  after 
once  started.    Gypsum  seems  to  help,  but  I  don't  know  how  much  to  use. 

The  amount  of  gypsum  required  to  neutralize  black  alkali  de- 
pends upon  how  much  black  alkali  there  is  to  be  neutralized,  and 
no  definite  amount,  therefore,  can  be  prescribed  beforehand  as  suf- 
ficient without  a  determination  of  the  amount  of  alkali.  In  some 
experiments  gypsum  to  the  amount  of  thirty  tons  to  the  acre  or 
more  has  been  used  just  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  how  much  the 
land  would  take,  and  a  fine  growth  of  grain  has  been  secured  after 
using  that  much  gypsum,  but  that,  of  course,  would  be  out  of  the 
question  because  the  outlay  would  be  more  than  the  land  or  the 
crop  would  be  worth. 

In  the  planting  of  trees  at  some  distance  apart,  the  tree  can  be 
protected  from  destruction  and  enabled  to  make  a  stand  in  the  soil 
by  using  gypsum  on  the  spot  rather  than  the  treatment  of  the  whole 
surface.  In  this  way  five  or  ten  pounds  of  gypsum  could  be  used 
by  mixing  with  the  soil  to  fill  a  good-sized  hole. 

Distribution  of  Alkali. 

I  am  told  by  all  the  ranchers  on  the  east  and  south  sides  of  the  valley 
that  their  wells  are  excellent.  But  they  all  say  that  on  the  west  side  they 
are  bringing  up  alkali.  One  also  said  that  the  zvater  level  zvas  rising 
throughout  all  the  valley.  Is  it  safe  to  depend  on  this  in  part,  or  will  the 
alkali  spread  over  all  the  valley  and  the  foothills? 


154  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

It  is  not  unusual  to  find  people  who  predict  the  rise  of  alkali 
almost  anywhere  except  on  their  own  premises.  No  one  can  exactly 
tell  where  alkali  will  go,  because  no  one  has  complete  knowledge 
of  the  water  movement  in  underlying  strata.  Wherever  the  ground 
water  rises  on  lower  levels  because  of  irrigation  on  higher  levels 
there  is  danger  of  the  rising  of  the  alkali,  for  which  the  only  cure 
is  underdrainage  with  tile  so  that  this  rising  water  is  carried  to  an 
outflow  and  not  allowed  to  approach  within  three  or  four  feet  of 
the  surface.  If  you  have  such  an  outflow  and  desire  to  undertake 
the  expense  of  tiling,  you  can  insure  yourself  against  a  serious  rise 
of  alkali  indefinitely.  We  do  not  see,  however,  how  alkali  can  rise 
to  the  higher  lands  of  the  valley.  Its  first  effect  would  be  to  make 
lakes  or  ponds  in  the  lowest  parts  of  the  valley,  and  even  then  the 
surrounding  mesa  lands  would  not  be  injured. 

Plants  Will  Tell  About  Alkali. 

Please  give  information  as  to  the  application  of  gypsum  to  my  soil 
which  is  somezvhat  alkaline.  I  do  not  care  to  have  an  analysis  made  of 
my  soil,  and  believe  that  you  can  advise  me  zuithout  it. 

If  your  soil  is  too  alkaline  for  the  growth  of  plants  you  can 
demonstrate  that  fact  by  experiment,  or  if  it  is  capable  of  being  used 
by  the  application  of  gypsum,  that  also  can  be  determined  by  ex- 
periment and  noting  the  behavior  of  the  same  plants  afterwards. 
It  is  rather  a  slow  process  but  it  is  sure  enough. 

Litmus  and  Alkali. 

Is  there  any  simple  soil  test  for  alkali  that  can  be  made  zvithout  a 
chemical  analysis? 

You  can  ascertain  the  presence  of  alkali  by  using  red  litmus 
paper,  which  will  be  turned  blue  by  the  alkali  in  the  soil,  if  the  soil 
is  moist  enough.  This  does  not  determine  the  amount  of  alkali,  but 
the  quickness  of  the  turning  to  the  blue  color  and  the  depth  of  the 
color  are  both  attained  when  the  alkali  is  very  strong.  When  there 
is  less  alkali,  the  reaction  is  slower  and  weaker.  This  test,  however, 
gives  you  only  a  rough  idea  whether  the  soil  is  suitable  for  growing 
plants.  You  can  tell  that  better  by  the  appearance  of  the  plants 
which  you  find.  Any  druggist  can  furnish  the  litmus  paper,  and  give 
you  a  demonstration  of  how  it  acts  on  contact  with  alkali. 

Using   Gypsum  for  Alkali. 

Is  it  better,  to  kill  the  black  alkali  in  the  soil  zvith  gypsum,  just  to 
scatter  it  over  an  alkalied  spot  or  to  plozv  the  soil  iirst  and  then  use  the 
gypsum?    I  am  going  to  sozv  alfalfa. 

Use  the  gypsum  after  plowing,  for  it  will  wet  down  more 
quickly,  and  the  gypsum  has  to  be  dissolved  to  act  freely.  The  best 
way  to  cure  your  spot  is  to  run  an  underdrain  into  it,  if  possible, 
so  the  rain-water  can  run  through  the  soil  freely  and  take  the  alkali 
with  it. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and   Irrigation  155 

Blasting  or  Tiling. 

In  planting:,  trees  zvheic  hardpait  is  four  feet  front  the  surfaee  is  it 
necessary  to  blast  the  hardpaii,  or  is  there  no  benefit  derived  by  the  bUist- 
ing? 

If  there  should  be  a  good  available  soil  under  a  shallow  layer 
of  hardpan,  which  you  say  is  four  feet  from  the  surface,  it  might 
be  of  considerable  advantage  to  bore  into  the  hardpan  and  explode 
a  dynamite  cartridge  in  it.  But  if  your  good  soil  is  really  only  four 
feet  deep  and  hardpan  continuous  below,  the  blast  might  cause  fis- 
sures which  would  prevent  standing  water  in  the  upper  stratum.  If 
you  are  sure  of  four  feet  of  good  soil  above  the  hardpan  you  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  growing  good  trees,  if  you  get  the  moisture 
just  right  and  the  hardpan  slopes  in  such  a  way  that  surplus  moist- 
ure will  move  away.  If,  however,  you  have  hardpan  at  different 
depths  on  the  tract,  so  that  it  may  really  make  basins  which  will 
hold  water,  you  are  likely  to  have  trouble  from  accumulations  of 
water  which  will  not  only  prevent  the  roots  extending  to  the  full 
depths  of  the  soil,  but  will  also  cause  some  trees  to  die.  Such  a 
danger  could  be  removed  by  draining  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  three 
and  a  half  or  four  feet  with  tile,  in  order  to  prevent  accumulations 
at  any  point.  This  would  be  expensive  perhaps,  but  you  would  be 
sure  that  you  had  rendered  your  four  feet  of  soil  safe  and  available. 
If  you  trust  to  blasting  you  will  have  to  wait  several  years  for  the 
trees  to   tell  you   whether   you  helped  them   or  not. 

Effects  of  Blasting. 

/  have  land  which  is  underlaid  zvith  hardpan  tn'o  or  three  feet  deep 
and  this  in  turn  is  underlaid  zvith  sand  or  sandpan.  What  I  would  like 
to  know  is  whether  blasti)ig  the  holes  before  setting  trees  zuould  alloxv 
more  moisture  coming  from  this  sandpan,  or,  rather,  zuhat  effect  it  zcould 
have  as  to  moisture. 

We  do  not  know.  It  might  make  the  soil  better  for  the  trees 
by  allowing  escape  for  surplus  water  through  previous  layers.  It 
might  allow  the  tree  to  root  more  deeply  for  moisture  in  those  strata. 
It  might  allow  water  to  rise  from  such  strata  if  they  have  water 
under  pressure.  It  might  do  other  things  good  or  bad,  according  to 
conditions  prevailing  under  the  hardpan.  If  you  are  to  irrigate  the 
land  the  effects  would  probably  be  good. 

The  Sub-soil  Plow. 

/  am  contemplating  using  a  sub-soil  plozv  for  the  purpose  of  breaking 
plozv-sole  on  grain  land.  This  is  about  Ayi  inches  belozv  the  surface  and 
is  about  5  inches  thick.  This  soil  is  comparatively  loose  and  seems  to 
be  of  good  quality.  Do  you  think  that  the  sub-soil  plozv  run  lozv  enough 
to  break  this  plow-sole  will  benefit  the  landf 

There  can  be  no  question  about  the  benefit  of  breaking  up  this 
tight    stratum,    provided    you    use    a   long-tooth    harrow   or   a    subsoil 


156  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

packer  afterward  to  reduce  the  land  so  that  it  will  not  be  too  open 
to  loss  of  moisture  by  too  free  circulation  of  air.  The  best  way 
to  treat  such  a  soil  would  be  to  use  a  tractor  and  plow  to  a  full 
foot  of  depth,  for  this,  followed  by  good  harrowing,  would  disin- 
tegrate the  hard  stuff  and  commingle  it  with  the  loose  surface  soil 
and  make  it  somewhat  more  retentive — doing  this  when  the  moist- 
ure is  just  right  for  disintegration  and  mixing.  If  you  are  not  ready 
to  go  to  this  expense,  a  subsoiler,  following  the  plow  with  another 
team,  would  put  your  land  in  better  shape  for  dry  farming  or  for 
irrigation  than  it  is  now.  Starting  late,  however,  might  give  you 
less  crop  the  first  year  on  such  deep  working  than  by  shallow  plow- 
ing if  the  year's  rainfall  should  be  scant.  It  would,  however,  be  a 
good  start  for  summer-fallowing  and  a  big  crop  the  next  year. 

Sour  Soil. 

What  is  "sour"  soil?  Is  that  the  name  by  which  it  is  commonly 
known,  and  what  is  the  treatment  for  it? 

Sour  soil  is  soil  in  which  an  acid  is  developed  by  plant  decay 
and  exclusion  of  air.  The  proper  treatment  is  the  application  of 
lime,  and  aeration  by  open  tillage  and  underdrainage. 

Old  Plaster  for  Sour  Land. 

Can  house  plaster  be  used  in  reclaiming  sour  ground  and  how  much 
per  acre?  The  ground  produces  some  sour  grass — not  a  great  deal.  The 
plaster  is  from  an  old  building  that  is  being  torn  down. 

House  plaster  is  desirable  as  an  application  to  land  which  is 
sour.  It  also  adds  to  the  mellowness  of  land  which  is  hard,  because 
of  the  sand  contained  in  it.  It  has  always  been  considered  a  good 
dressing  for  garden  land.  So  far  as  the  correction  of  sourness  goes, 
it  is  much  less  active  than  fresh  lime,  but  it  acts  in  the  same  way 
to  a  limited  extent.  It  is  certainly  worth  using,  providing  it  does 
not  cost  too  much  for  delivery,  and  can  be  freely  used  if  the  land 
is  heavy  and  needs  friability. 

Application  of  Manure  Ashes. 

Having  recently  got  a  lot  of  manure  plentifully  supplied  with  red- 
wood shavings  that  had  been  used  with  the  bedding,  and  being  afraid 
to  use  the  same  in  that  shape,  as  it  takes  such  a  long  time  for  the  wood 
to  rot,  I  reduced  the  pile  to  a  heap  of  ashes.  Hoiv  can  it  be  best  applied 
to  ornamental  trees  and  shrubbery  in  a  light  gravelly  soil? 

You  have  done  unwisely  in  burning  the  manure.  We  would 
have  taken  the  risk  of  a  single  use  of  shavings  for  the  sake  of  the 
manurial  matter  associated  with  them,  and  this  risk  of  too  much 
lightening  of  a  gravelly  soil  would  be  especially  small  in  connection 
with  deep  rooting  plants  like  ornamental  trees  and  shrubbery.  You 
have  left  merely  the  skeleton  of  the  manure,  and  much  of  that  of 
doubtful   solubility,   if   the   temperature    ran    very    high    by    burning  in 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  157 

a  mass.  You  need  not  be  fearful  about  using  these  ashes.  Scatter 
or  spread  them  over  the  ground  just  as  you  would  have  spread  the 
manure,  let  the  rains  dissolve  and  carry  down  what  they  can  and 
go  on  with  your  usual  methods  of  cultivation. 

The  Best  Fertilizer  for  Sand. 

Hoiv  can  I  best  fertilize  soil  that  is  pure  sand? 

The  best  fertilizer  for  pure  sand  is  well-rotted  stable  manure, 
because  it  not  only  supplies  all  kinds  of  plant  food,  but  increases 
the  humus  in  the  soil,  which  is  exceedingly  important  in  making  the 
sand   more  retentive  of  moisture  as  well  as  more  productive. 

Fertilizers  in  Tree   Holes. 

Would  it  be  harmful  to  add  2  or  3  founds  of  steamed  bone  meal  to 
the  hole  of  a  young  tree  just  before  planting? 

There  would  be  no  injury,  providing  you  mix  it  with  a  consider- 
able amount  of  soil  by  digging  over  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  but  our 
conviction  is  that  on  lands  which  are  good  enough  for  the  commer- 
cial planting  of  fruit  trees,  it  is  not  necessary  to  stimulate  a  young 
tree  in  this  way,  but  that  it  is  better  to  postpone  the  use  of  fer- 
tilizers until  the  trees  come  into  bearing  and  show  the  desirability 
of  more  liberal  feeding.  Of  course,  if  young  trees  do  not  make 
satisfactory  growth,  they  may  be  stimulated  either  with  some  kind 
of  a  fertilizer  or  with  a  freer  use  of  water,  and  it  is  generally  the 
latter  that  they  are  chiefly  in  need  of. 

Wood  Ashes  and  Tomatoes. 

Is  there  any  harm  to  vegetable  growing  to  dig  sufficient  of  wood 
ashes  in  for  mellozving  heavy  soil?  My  tomato  plants  grezv  splendidly 
this  year,  but  the  fruits  were  all  rough  and  zvrinkled.  I  gave  them  plenty 
of  horse  and  poultry  manure  at  planting  and  plenty  of  wood  ashes  and 
falling  leaves  of  cypress  later. 

Wood  ashes  do  not  mellow  a  heavy  soil.  The  efifect  of  the 
potash  is  to  overcome  the  granular  structure  and  increase  compact- 
ness. Coal  ashes,  because  they  are  coarser  in  particles  and  devoid 
of  potash,  do  promote  mellowness,  and  are  valuable  mechanically 
on  a  heavy  soil  although  they  do  not  contain  appreciable  amounts 
of  plant  food.  You  are  overfeeding  your  tomato  plants,  probably. 
The  chances  are  that  you  had  poor  seed.  There  is  no  best  tomato, 
because  you  ought  to  grow  early  and  late  kinds:  there  is  also  some 
diflference   in   the   behavior   of   varieties   in   different   places. 

Was  It  the  Potash  or  the  Water? 

Last  year  the  lye  from  the  prune  dipper  zvas  turned  on  the  ground 
near  tzvo  almond  trees  which  seemed  to  be  dying,  and  to  my  surprise 
they  have  taken  a  nezv  lease  of  life.  Hence  my  conclttsion  that  potash 
was  good  for  our  soil. 


158  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Your  experience  seems  to  justify  the  application  of  potash,  sureljs 
but  the  question  still  remains,  how  much  good  the  potash  did  the 
trees,  and  how  much  they  needed  the  extra  water  which  the  waste 
dips  supplied.  It  would  be  desirable  for  you  to  make  another  ex- 
periment with  other  trees,  applying  wood  ashes,  if  you  have  them, 
or  about  four  pounds  per  tree  of  the  potash  which  you  use  for  dip- 
ping, scattering  well  and  working  it  into  the  soil  after  it  is  moist- 
ened by  the  rains,  and  not  using  any  more  water  than  the  trees 
ordinarily  received  from  rainfall.  After  this  trial  you  will  be  in  a 
position  to  know  whether  your  trees  need  potash  or  irrigation — by 
comparing  with  other  trees  adjacent.  Besides  are  you  sure  that 
your  lye  dip  was  caustic  potash  and  not  caustic  soda?  The  latter 
has  no  fertilizing  value. 

Prunings  as  Fertilizer. 

Is  orchard  and  vineyard  brush  zvorth  enough  as  a  fertiliser  to  pay 
for  cutting  or  breaking  and  putting  back  on  the  land? 

We  should  say  not.  It  takes  too  much  labor  to  put  it  in  any 
form  to  promote  decay,  and  is  even  then  too  indestructible.  It  is 
also  possible  that  its  decay  may  induce  root  rot  of  trees.  We  should 
burn  the  stufif  and  spread  the  ashes.  Vineyard  prunings  are  more 
promising  because  more  easily  and  quickly  reduced  by  decay.  Vine- 
cane-hashers  have  been  proposed  from  time  to  time,  but  we  do  not 
know  anyone  who  long  used  them. 

Gypsum  on  Grain  Land. 

Is  there  any  profit  in  sozving  gypsum  on  grain  land,  say  on  ivhcat  or 
oat  crop/    At  what  stage  should  it  be  applied  and  in  what  quantity? 

It  would  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  surface  more  friable  and 
therefore  better  for  moisture  retention,  and  it  could  be  used  at  the 
rate  of  1000  pounds  to  the  acre,  broadcasted  before  plowing  for 
grain.  As  our  soils  are,  however,  usually  well  supplied  with  lime, 
there  is  a  question  whether  there  would  be  any  profit  in  the  use  of 
gypsum,  for,  aside  from  lime,  it  contains  no  plant  food,  although 
it  does  act  rather  energetically  upon  other  coil  contents.  Gypsum 
is  a  tonic  and  not  a  fertilizer  from  that  point  of  view.  The  best 
way  to  satisfy  yourself  of  its  effect  would  be  to  try  a  small  area, 
marked  so  as  j'ou  could  note  its  behavior  as  compared  with  the  rest 
of  the  field. 

Gypsum  and  Alfalfa. 

What  is  gypsum  composed  off  Is  it  detrimental  to  land  in  future 
years?  Have  the  lands  of  California  any  black  alkali  in  them?  I  notice 
my  neighbors  who  sozv  gypsum  on  their  alfalfa  get  a  very  much  better 
yield  of  hay  than  those  who  do  not. 

Gypsum  is  sulphate  of  lime.  It  is  not  detrimental  to  the  land 
in  after  years  except  that  its  action  is  to  render  immediately  avail- 
able other  plant  foods  and  this  may  render  the  land  poorer — not  by 


SoiLSj  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  159 

the  addition  of  anything  that  is  injurious  but  by  the  quicker  using 
up  of  plant  food  which  it  already  contains.  Black  alkali  is  very 
common  in  California  in  alkali  lands.  In  lands  which  show  their 
quality  by  good  cropping,  there  is  no  reason  to  apprehend  black 
alkali  nor  to  use  gypsum  to  prevent  its  occurrence.  The  use  of 
gypsum  does  stimulate  the  growth  of  alfalfa  and  makes  its  product 
greater  just  as  you  observe  in  the  experience  of  your  neighbors, 
but  the  more  they  use  up  the  land  now  the  less  they  will  have  later, 
unless  they  resort  to  regular  fertilization  to  restore  what  has  been 
exhausted.     But  even  that  may  be  a  good  business  proposition. 

What  Gypsum  Does. 

/  intend  to  fertilise  alfalfa  and  should  like  to  know  about  gypsum.  I 
have  heard  it  stimulates  the  grozvth  temporarily  hut  in  three  or  four 
years  hurts  the  land.     I  have  heavy  land. 

The  functions  of  gypsum  are:  (a)  to  supply  lime  when  the  soil 
lacks  it;  (b)  to  make  a  heavy  soil  more  mellow,  and  (c)  to  act  upon 
other  soil  substances  to  render  them  more  available  for  plant  food. 
These  are  some  of  the  soil  aspects  of  gypsum;  it  may  have  plant 
aspects  also.  It  is  too  much  to  say  that  gypsum  hurts  the  land; 
it  does,  however,  help  the  plant  to  more  quickly  exhaust  its  fertility, 
and  in  this  respect  is  not  like  the  direct  plant  foods  which  comprise ' 
the  true  fertilizers — one  of  which  gypsum  is  not.  It  might  be  best 
for  your  pocketbook  and  for  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil  to 
use  it,  but  do  not  think  that  it  is  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the 
land  (a  service  which  we  expect  from  the  true  fertilizers)  except  as 
it  may  supply  a  possible  deficiency  of  lime. 

How  Much  Gypsum? 

How  much  per  acre,  hoiv  frequently  and  zvhat  seasotis  of  the  year 
are  the  best  time  to  apply  gypsum? 

Of  gypsum  on  alkali,  we  should  begin  at  the  rate  of  one  ton 
to  the  acre  and  repeat  the  application  as  frequently  as  necessary  to 
achieve  the  desired  result.  If  the  alkali  was  quite  strong  we  would 
use  twice  as  much.  Without  reference  to  an  alkaline  condition  in 
the  soil,  and  to  give  heavy  soil  a  more  friable  character,  which  pro- 
motes cultivation,  aeration,  etc.,  and,  therefore,  ministers  to  more 
successful  production,  half  a  ton  to  the  acre  can  be  used,  applications 
to   be  repeated  as  conditions  seem  to  warrant  it. 

Wood  Ashes  in  the  Garden. 

There  is  available  in  my  neighborhood  a  free  supply  of  zvood  ashes. 
Can  you  tell  me  how  best  to  distribute  the  same  in  a  garden  (flowers  and 
garden  truck),  and  what,  if  any,  treatment  is  to  be  given  the  ashes  for 
the   best  results. 

Wood  ashes  long  exposed  to  rain  lose  most  of  their  valuable 
contents,   and    leached   ashes    are   only   of    small   value.      If   they   are 


160  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

fresh  ashes  or  ashes  which  have  been  kept  dry,  they  are  chiefly 
valuable  for  potash,  which  is  good  in  its  way,  but  not  all  that  a 
plant  needs.  If,  however,  your  soil  is  shy  of  potash,  the  use  of 
ashes  will  notably  improve  growth  if  not  applied  in  excess  in  the 
caustic  form  in  which  it  occurs  in  the  ashes.  They  require  no 
treatment.  Spread,  say,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thickness  all  over  the 
ground  and  dig  in  deeply.  It  may  also  help  you  by  destruction  of 
wire  worms  and  other  ground  pests. 

Coal  Ashes  in  the  Garden. 

What  is  the  effect  of  coal  ashes  on  the  red  clay  soil  of  Redlands  or 
wood  and  coal  ashes  combined? 

Coal  ashes  are  exceedingly  desirable  upon  clay  land  because 
their  mechanical  mixture  with  the  fine  particles  of  the  clay  renders 
the  soil  more  friable,  permeable  and  better  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  most  plants.  Coal  ashes,  however,  possess  no  fertilizing  value — 
their  action  is  merely  mechanical.  The  wood  ashes  which  may  be 
combined  with  them  are  desirable  as  a  source  of  potash  which  most 
plants  require. 

Liming  a  Chicken  Yard. 

/  have  a  small  family  orchard  of  half  an  acre,  fenced  in  as  a  chicken 
yard,  the  soil  of  zvhich  has  become  very  foul.  When  would  he  the 
best  time  to  apply  lime  and  how  muchf 

Put  on  500  pounds  of  lime  and  plow  under  as  soon  as  you  can 
— that  is,  spread  the  lime  just  before  the  plowing,  with  a  shower  or 
two  on  the  lime  before  plowing,  if  the  weather  runs  that  way. 

Poultry  Manure. 

Give  directions  for  using  chicken  manure.  For  use  of  young  trees, 
is  there  any  difference  in  treatment  of  deciduous  and  citrus  trees?  For 
use  in  the  vegetable  garden  and  the  flower  garden,  ivhat  should  be  mixed 
with  it  and  in  wJiat  proportions?  So  many  people  say  poultry  manure 
is  so  strong,  I  am  afraid  to  use  it. 

It  is  a  fact  that  poultry  manure,  free  from  earth,  contains  even 
as  high  as  four  times  as  much  plant  food  as  ordinary  stable  manure. 
It  is,  therefore,  to  be  used  with  proportional  care,  so  that  the  plants 
shall  not  receive  too  much,  and  particularly  so  that  there  may  not 
be  too  much  collected  in  one  place.  Probably  the  best  way  to  guard 
against  this  is  to  thoroughly  mix  the  manure  with  three  or  four 
times  its  bulk  of  ordinary  garden  soil  and  then  use  this  mixture  at 
about  the  same  rate  you  would  stable  manure.  If  you  do  not  desire 
to  go  to  all  this  trouble,  make  an  even  scattering  of  the  manure  and 
work  it  into  the  soil.  There  is  no  reason  to  fear  the  material; 
simply  guard  against  the  unwise  use  of  it.  It  is  good  for  all  the 
plants  which  you  mention;  in  fact,  for  any  plant  grown,  provided  it 
is  sparingly  and  evenly  distributed. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  161 

It  should  be  pulverized  so  that  there  shall  not  be  lumps  and 
masses  in  the  same  place  for  fear  of  root  injury.  Of  course,  the 
strength  depends  upon  how  much  earth  is  gathered  up  with  the 
manure.  Sometimes  there  is  so  much  waste  material  that  it  can  be 
handled  just  as  ordinary  farm  manure  is. 

We  should  not  use  over  20  pounds  of  clean  droppings  to  a 
young  tree  and  should  mix  it  with  the  soil  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance around  the  tree.  Old  bearing  trees  might  stand  two  or  three 
tons  to  the  acre  if  distributed  all  over  the  ground.  The  material 
contains  everything  that  is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  tree 
and  formation  of  the  fruit. 

Ashes  and  Poultry  Manure. 

It  is  said  that  aslics  mixed  with  chicken  manure  is  not  good.  I  use 
ashes  altogether  on  the  drop  boards  because  I  can  keep  the  boards  cleaner. 
The  refuse  is  then  scattered  around  the  fruit  trees. 

Wood  ashes  and  lime  should  never  be  used  as  you  propose, 
because  they  set  free  the  nitrogen  compounds  which  are  the  most 
valuable  content  of  poultry  manures.  This  action  is  conditioned 
largely  upon  the  presence  of  moisture,  and  if  the  droppings  are  kept 
dry  and  hurried  into  the  soil  the  loss  is  lessened.  Coal  ashes,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  a  thoroughly  good  absorbent  when  the  coal 
burns  to  a  fine  ash  or  is  sifted.  They  do  not  act  as  wood  ashes  do, 
because  they  do  not  contain  soluble  alkali.  They  also  have  a  good 
mellowing  effect  on  heavy  soil. 

Caustic  Lime  Not  a  Good  Absorbent. 

Would  air-slackened  lime  be  suitable  to  sprinkle  over  the  dropping 
boards  in  hen  houses? 

Gypsum  is  greatly  superior  to  air-slacked  lime  for  the  hen  houses, 
as  it  has  every  beneficial  effect  of  the  latter,  while  the  air-slacked 
lime  will  set  free  much  of  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  manure,  which 
the  gypsum  will  not  do. 

Too    Much    Chicken    Manure    for    Young    Trees. 

/  have  peach  trees  and  apple  trees,  3  to  6  years  old,  that  are  very 
thrifty  but  grow  only  wood.  The  soil  was  poor  zvhen  planting,  and  I 
have  put  on  plenty  of  szvccpings  from  the  chicken-yards.  I  suppose  that 
is  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

Undoubtedly  you  have  overmanured  your  soil  with  chicken 
manure,  which  is  a  very  strong  fertilizer  and  should  only  be  used  in 
limited  quantities.  In  order  to  counteract  any  acidity  or  ill  effects 
which  have  been  produced  by  its  excessive  application,  it  would  be 
desirable  for  you  to  apply  about  500  to  1000  pounds  per  acre  of 
common  builders'  lime  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season,  working 
it  into  the  soil  with  the  fall  or  early  winter  plowing.  Do  not  cut 
back  the   tree   during   the   dormant   season,  although,   of  course,   you 


162  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

may  have  to  remove  surplus  or  interfering  branches  for  the  sake 
of  shaping  the  tree.  Winter  pruning  induces  a  greater  wood  grow^th 
during  the  following  summer;  therefore,  it  should  be  avoided  under 
such  conditions  as  you  describe.  Having  adopted  such  a  policy,  there 
is  nothing  for  you  to  do  but  to  wait  for  the  trees  to  slow  down  and 
assume  a  normal  bearing  habit  proper  for  their  ages.  Summer 
pruning  is  an  offset  for  excessive  wood  growth. 

Suburban  Wastes. 

We  keep  a  cow  and  poultry  and  have  a  dry-earth  toilet.  We  have 
been  burying  the  manure  in  the  little  garden  spot  or  along  by  the  fences 
or  spreading  it  out  on  the  alfalfa  before  it  is  rotted,  but  do  not  get  good 
results.  How  shall  zve  apply  it  to  get  the  best  results?  We  have  a  town 
ordinance  against  leaving  it  in  piles  to  rot. 

You  can  compost  it  in  a  tight  bin  made  of  planks,  and  using 
enough  water  to  prevent  too  rapid  fermentation  and  loss  of  valuable 
ingredients.  During  the  dry  season  you  can  probably  use  enough 
dry  earth  or  road  dust  to  render  the  material  inoffensive,  and  you 
can  also  distribute  it  then  without  itndesirable  results. 

Composting  Garden  Wastes. 

You  recoiiintcnd  making  a  compost  of  all  scrapings,  garbage,  zveeds, 
etc.     Is  there  any  danger  in  having  this  in  a  pit  near  the  house  f 

If  you  desire  to  put  garden  wastes,  including  manure,  into  a 
pit,  the  only  objection  would  be  the  heavy  work  of  digging  it  out 
again.  If  you  allow  waste  water  from  the  house  to  run  into  the  pit, 
there  would  probably  be  not  enough  dry  material  to  absorb  it,  and 
the  pit  would  be  not  only  objectionable  on  account  of  odors,  but 
possibly  dangerous  to  health.  The  water  would  also  prevent  de- 
composition, because  of  exclusion  of  air.  At  the  same  time,  enough 
moisture  to  promote  slow  decomposition  is  essential.  It  is  usually 
more  convenient  to  compost  garden  wastes  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  enclosing  them  with  a  plank  retainer,  because  moisture  can 
easily  be  applied  with  a  hose,  as  desirable,  the  material  can  be  oc- 
casionally forked  over  to  promote  decay,  and  the  heavy  work  of 
digging  material  out  of  a  pit  is  avoided.  Such  a  collection  is  neither 
offensive  nor  dangerous  if  handled  right. 

Composting  Manure. 

Will  the  dry  barnyard  manure,  when  heaped  up  and  dampened  with 
water,  make  a  valuable  fertiliser? 

For  garden  use,  dry  manure  in  heaps  should  be  dampened  with 
water  from  time  to  time  so  as  to  prevent  too  active  fermentation. 
Of  course,  water  should  not  be  supplied  so  freely  as  to  cause  a 
leaching  of  the  pile.  It  is  also  desirable  that  the  material  should  be 
forked  over  from  time  to  time  to  distribute  moisture  and  promote 
decay.  When  this  is  done  a  thoroughly  first-class  fertilizer  is  pro- 
duced. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  163 

Barnyard  Manure  and  Alkali. 

In  spots  >ny  huid  is  hard  and  has  some  black  alkali.  Will  barnyard 
manure  help  the  hard  land  if  cultivated  in? 

Use  stable  manure  because  that  would  not  only  furnish  nitrogen, 
if  your  plants  need  any  more,  but  it  would  add  coarse  material  and 
ultimately  humus  which  would  overcome  the  tendency  of  your  soil 
to  become  compact  and  thus  concentrate  alkali  near  the  surface  by 
evaporation.  Mellow  the  soil,  increase  the  humus,  make  water  move- 
ment freer  and  good  cultivation  easier  and  alkali  will  become  weaker 
by  distribution  through  a  greater  mass  of  the  soil  and  may  be  too 
weak  at  anj'  point  to  be  troublesome,  unless  you  have  too  much  to 
start  with.  Put  on  manure  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  and 
plow  it  under,  with  all  the  green  stuff  which  grows  upon  it,  during 
the  winter  or  early  spring. 

Stable  Manure  and  Bean  Straw. 

What  are  the  approximate  contents  of  common  stable  manure;  also, 
hoii)  much  of  the  above  is  contained  in  bean  straw? 

The  composition  of  mixed  stable  manure  is  given  as  containing 
in  one  ton:  Nitrogen,  10  pounds;  phosphoric  acid,  5  pounds;  potash, 
10  pounds.  The  constituents  of  bean  straw  in  one  ton,  are  given  as: 
Nitrogen,  28  pounds;  phosphoric  acid,  6  pounds;  potash,  38  pounds; 
Of  course,  a  large  part  of  the  difference  in  composition  is  due  to  the 
excessive  amount  of  moisture  which  ordinary  stable  manure  contains. 
Air  dried  stable  manure,  such  as  is  found  in  a  California  corral, 
would  have  much  higher  fertilizing  value  than  such  moist  manure 
as  an  Eastern  chemist  would  be  likely  to  handle. 

Roofing  a  Manure  Pit. 

Is  it  necessary  to  roof  a  manure  pit,  if  the  pit  is  tight  so  that  all 
rain  on  manure  is  caught  in  the  liquid  manure  and  nothing  is  lost? 

To  secure  satisfactory  composting  of  stable  manures  in  a  pit 
it  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  reguiate  the  moisture  of  the  mass. 
If  it  becomes  too  dry,  too  rapid  fermentation  takes  place  and  the 
material  is  destroyed  by  what  is  called  fire-fanging.  If  too  much 
liquid  enters  the  pit,  so  that  the  material  is  submerged,  the  air  is 
excluded  and  fermentation  stops.  For  these  reasons  it  is  necessary 
that  a  pit  in  the  region  of  large  rainfall  be  covered,  and  water  be 
used  from  a  hose  or  other  source  of  supply  in  just  sufficient  quantity 
to  keep  the  material  right  for  slow  fermentation.  How  much  water 
should  be  added  to  bring  the  moisture  to  a  right  condition  depends 
upon  how  much  liquid  waste  runs  into  the  pit,  and  where  water  is 
used  for  cleaning  a  stable  care  has  to  be  taken  that  the  pit  is  not 
submerged.  Success  with  a  pit  is,  therefore,  conditioned  on  the 
amount  of  moisture  admitted,  and  this  cannot  be  controlled  unless 
the  pit  has  a  cover  fit  to  shed  rainfall.  Of  course,  it  may  be  ad- 
justable so  that  some  rainfall  may  be  admitted  as  may  be  desirable. 


164  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Value  of  Animals  in  Manure. 

In  the  operation  of  our  fruit  and  dairy  ranch  zve  have  the  manure 
from  some  forty  head  of  Iiorses  and  cattle,  ivhich  is  distributed  over  the 
place.  We  cut  our  alfalfa  and  feed  it  and  do  very  little  pasturing.  In 
order  to  give  our  dairy  the  proper  credit,  zve  would  kindly  ask  what 
you  consider  a  fair  price  for  the  manure  of  a  cow  for  one  year.  Also 
what  would  the  manure  from  a  horse  for  one  year  be  worth? 

A  compilation  of  a  considerable  number  of  weighings,  analyses 
and  valuations  in  Europe,  cited  by  Prof.  Roberts  in  his  book  on  the 
"Fertility  of  the  Land,"  gives  an  average  value  of  the  voidings  of 
a  cow  for  a  year  as  $32.25  and  of  a  horse  at  $24.06.  This  is  based, 
of  course,  upon  the  collection  and  saving  of  all  excrements  which  is 
never  secured  except  in  careful  experimentation.  The  value  of 
manure  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  feed.  In  two  experiments, 
sidered  a  safe  substitute  for  the  straw,  apart  from  the  fact  that  the 
gave  a  value  in  manure  of  $1  per  ton  of  hay  fed;  cows  fed  on  clover 
and  bran  gave  value  in  manure  of  3.80  per  ton  of  mixed  feed. 
Your  alfalfa  feeding  would  approach  the  higher  value.  You  will 
have  to  make  an  estimate  from  the  above  data  to  serve  your  purpose 
and  you  can  figure  it  either  by  the  number  of  animals  or  by  the' 
tonnage   of   the    feed. 

Value  of  Fresh  and  Dry  Manure. 

What  is  the  relative  value  of  the  zveekly  or  scmi-zueekly  corral 
scrapings  which  are  tramped  fine  and  air-dried;  and  of  the  fresh,  zvet 
manure  from  the  stable?  I  do  not  understand  that  the  latter  has  ap- 
preciable water  added,  and  the  amount  of  sand  in  the  corral  scrapings 
would  be  small. 

Fresh,  mixed  animal  manure  is  usually  calculated  to  contain 
about  75  per  cent  of  water.  Manure  which  has  been  quickly  dried, 
without  fermentation  and  without  leaching  by  rains,  may  be  worth 
four  or  five  times  as  much  per  ton.  Nothing,  however,  short  of 
analysis  would  determine  the  value  of  any  particular  lot,  for  that 
depends  somewhat  upon  the  way  the  animals  are  fed,  as  well  as 
upon    the   moisture    content. 

Shavings  in  Stable  Manure. 

Is  barnyard  fertiliser  containing  shavings  instead  of  strazv,  desirable? 

Barnyard  manure  containing  shavings  is  chiefly  objectionable 
because  of  the  amount  of  inert  material.  The  shavings  are  exceed- 
ingly slow  to  decompose,  and  in  light  soil  in  considerable  quantities 
would  cause  a  serious  loss  of  moisture.  If  applied,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  a  heavy  soil  and  accompanied  by  sufficient  irrigation  water, 
the  effect  of  making  the  soil  more  friable  might  be  very  desirable. 
It  depends  then  upon  circumstances  whether  shavings  can  be  con- 
cited  by  Prof.  Snyder  in  his  "Soils  and  Fertilizers,"  cows  fed  on  hay 
straw  is  more  valuable  not  only  because  more  easily  decomposed, 
but  because  its  content  of  plant  food  is  greater. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  165 

Handling   Grape   Pomace. 

In  the  case  of  grape  pomace,  zcould  not  the  large  value  shozvn  by 
analysis  be  chiefly  in  tlic  seedsf  My  observation  is  that  these  arc  exceed- 
ingly sloii'  to  become  available  in  the  soil.  IVoiild  composting  break 
doivn  the  shell  of  the  seed? 

Grape  pomace  is  slowly  available  because  of  the  slow  disinte- 
gration you  mention.  It  could  be  hastened  by  drying  and  grinding, 
but  we  doubt  if  this  or  other  treatment  would  return  its  cost.  Decay 
by  moisture  promoted  by  composting  with  manure,  kept  at  a  low 
temperature  by  continuous  moisture  would  render  it  sooner  avail- 
able, but  this  would  involve  labor  which,  at  our  wage  rates,  would 
probably  make  the  material  cost  more  than  it  is  worth.  This  is 
probabl}'  a  cost  in  which  time  is  cheaper  than  money. 

Sheep  and  Goat  Manure. 

/  can  buy  goat  manure  from  an  inclosurc  zt'hcre  this  is  deposited  to 
an  amount  of  about  five  carloads.  Will  goat  manure  be  of  great  value 
in  fertilizing  an  orchard?  If  so,  hozv  much  of  it  should  be  spread  on  an 
acre? 

Accumulations  of  sheep  and  goat  manure  in  a  dry  situation,  that 
is,  where  not  leached  out  by  heavy  rainfall,  have  been  found  to  run 
as  high  as  $13  per  ton  in  fertilizing  constituents.  The  average 
would,  however,  be  not  above  $7.50,  and  would  depend  not  only  upon 
the  unleached  condition  of  the  material  but  upon  the  amount  of  sand 
mixed  with  it.  If  it  is  in  a  situation  where  sand  blows  very  freely, 
it  might  not  be  worth  over  $4  or  $5  per  ton,  possibly  not  that  much. 
You  have,  therefore,  to  deal  with  a  condition  largely  unknown.  So 
far  as  its  fertilizing  quality  goes,  however,  it  is  freely  available  and 
directly  calculated  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  plants,  and  probably 
four  or  five  tons  could  be  used  to  the  acre  without  injury  if  well 
distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  land.  Application  can  be  made  at 
any  time  of  the  year,  for  the  drying  will  not  injure  it.  It  will  not, 
however,  become  available  until  the  soil  is  sufficiently  moist  to  carry 
its  contents  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
in  California,  application  should  be  made  just  before  the  beginning 
of  the  rainy  season. 

Hog  Manure  and  Potatoes. 

What  is  the  fertilising  value  of  hog  manure,  and  also  zvhat  is  the 
best  fertiliser  to  use  for  potatoes?  Our  potatoes  are  planted  early  in 
January. 

Hog  manure  is  rather  a  rank  and  strong  fertilizer,  usually  very 
rich,  although  the  quality  of  it  depends  upon  how  well  the  hogs  have 
been  fed — that  from  grain-fed  hogs  being  notably  better.  The  valua- 
tion of  hog  manure  ranges  from  $2.50  to  $3.25  per  ton,  according  to 
the  feeding  as  noted,  while  ordinary  stable  manure  may  be  worth  from 
$2  to  $2.75  per  ton.  It  is  not  a  good  idea  to  apply  these  organic 
manures  directly  for  the   growth  of  potatoes.     It  is   better  to  apply 


166  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

them  to  the  land  for  the  growth  of  a  grain  or  forage  crop,  plowing 
in  the  stubble  and  using  the  land  for  potatoes  the  following  year. 
If  you  wish  to  fertilize  directly  for  potatoes,  the  use  of  a  commercial 
fertilizer  containing  a  good  amount  of  potash  would  be  a  better 
proposition. 

Fertilizer  for  Sweet  Potatoes  and  Melons. 

/  have  sandy  soil  that  has  been  used  for  sweet  potatoes  until  it  is 
worn  out  for  that  crop,  and  would  like  your  advice  as  to  the  best  fertiliser 
to  use.  Also,  what  fertiliser  zvould  be  best  for  melons  on  land  that  has 
been  planted  to  melons  for  the  past  three  years? 

There  is  not  much  difiference  in  the  plant  food  required  by  the 
two  crops  you  mention,  but  both  evidently  need  a  freshened  soil 
and  an  increase  of  humus.  We  should  apply  a  half  ton  to  the  acre 
of  a  complete  fertilizer,  of  which  any  dealer  can  give  you  descriptions 
and  prices.  If  you  wish  to  do  a  good  job,  start  a  growth  of  peas  or 
vetches  or  burr  clover,  and  sow  the  fertilizer  evenly  with  the  seed. 
Plow  the  growth  under  in  February  and  roll  (as  the  soil  is  sandy) 
to  close  down  and  promote  the  decay  of  the  green  stuff,  which 
ought  to  be  so  well  accomplished  by  the  date  that  it  is  safe  to 
plant  sweet  potatoes  or  melons  that  it  will  give  no  trouble  in 
summer  cultivation. 

An  Abuse  of  Grape  Pomace. 

/  got  in  an  argument  with  a  neighbor  of  mine  zvho  stated  that  grape 
pomace  is  not  a  fertilizer.  Is  it  so?  My  neighbor  says  that  two  years 
ago  he  had  two  apricot  trees  in  his  yard,  and  they  ivere  fine  bearing  and 
healthy  trees.  After  making  his  wine  he  put  the  pomace  on  the  ground 
and  they  died.    Could  that  be  the  cause? 

Yes,  probably.  He  used  too  much  fresh  pomace  and  the  re- 
sulting fermentation  of  its  products  may  have  killed  the  trees.  But 
grape  promace,  after  going  through  fermentation  and  in  the  process 
of  decay,  makes  humus  in  addition  to  giving  potash  and  other  desir- 
able substances  to  the  soil. 

Manuring    Vineyard. 

Does  barnyard  manure  have  any  injurious  effect  on  the  vines  if 
applied  on  my  vineyard?  One  of  my  neighbors  claims  barnyard  manure 
burned  his  vines  so  he  got  no  crop  wherever  he  spread  the  manure,  and 
nothing  would  now  induce  him  to  use  it  again. 

Barnyard  manure  can  be  safely  used  in  a  vineyard  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  rainy  season,  working  it  in  with  the  plowing,  but 
not  using  too  much.  Wine  grapes  are  sometimes  injuriously  af- 
fected in  flavor  by  the  use  of  such  fertilizer,  but  the  growth  of 
the  vine  itself  can  be  stimulated  by  the  rational  use  of  it.  Your 
neighbor  apparently  either  used  too  much  or  made  the  application 
at  the  beginning  of  the  dry  season  or  made  some  other  mistake. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  167 

Bones    for    Grape    Vines. 

/  am  goiug  to  plant  out  soi>ic  grape  vines,  and  would  like  to  know 
if  it  is  a  good  plan  to  put  old  bones,  broken  up  Une,  into  the  holes 
when  planting. 

Yes,  if  you  do  not  use  too  much  and  it  is  mixed  with  earth, 
a  little  beyond  the  touch  of  the  roots  at  planting.  You  do  not 
need  to  finely  break  the  bones.  The  roots  will  take  care  of  that. 
But  do  not  put  in  too  much  coarse  stuflf,  for  fear  of  causing  too 
rapid   drainage. 

Reviving   Blighted   Trees. 

/  have  a  couple  of  apple  trees  here  that  were  hurt  by  the  pear  blight 
three  years  ago  and  zvere  cut  back  since  then;  they  come  out  each  year, 
but  the  leaves  curl  up,  and  they  do  not  do  anything.  I  zvould  like  to  know 
if  putting  any  fertilizer  around  them  zvould  help  them  to  put  out  their 
leaves,  and  if  so  what  I  should  use? 

Put  some  stable  manure  on  the  top  of  the  soil  around  your  trees 
now  so  that  the  rains  may  reach  the  contents  of  the  soil,  then  later 
in  the  season  dig  the  manure  into  the  soil.  Apply  water  during  the 
summer  time  and  this  will  encourage  the  trees  to  grow,  if  there  is 
any  vigor  remaining  in  them.  This  treatment,  however,  will  not 
protect    them    from   the   blight. 

Fertilizing   Pear   Orchard. 

/  have  pear  trees  15  years  old  zvhich  have  fruited  heavily  for  years 
and  have  never  been  fertilised.  What  is  the  best  fertiliser  for  the  soil 
which  is  heavy,  and  when  is  the  best  time  to  apply  it?  I  intend  planting 
rye  to  plozv  under  in  the  spring,  but  thought  possibly  the  fertiliser  should 
be  applied  first. 

If  you  have  stable  manure  available,  nothing  could  be  better 
for  the  feeding  of  the  trees  and  for  its  mellowing  eflfect  upon  your 
heavy  soil.  Application  can  be  made  at  once,  to  be  worked  into 
the  land  when  the  rye  is  sown.  It  will  help  the  trees  and  give  you 
more  rye  which  in  the  end  will  help  the  trees.  If  you  have  no  stable 
manure  available,  what  is  called  by  the  dealers  a  "complete  fer- 
tilizer" for  orchard  purposes  is  what  you  should  use  and  apply  it 
when  you  work  the  land  for  rye. 

Fertilizing  Olives. 

What  is  the  best  means  of  fertilising  an  olive  orchard?  My  orchard 
gives  me  a  perfect  quality  of  oil,  but  a  poor  quantity.  My  soil  is  dry 
calcareous,  red  and  gray,  and  is  z'cry  thin  i)i  places,  therefore,  it  lacks 
moisture. 

An  olive  orchard  can  be  fertilized  with  stable  manure  or  with 
a  "complete  fertilizer,"  or  with  the  special  brands  of  different  manu- 
facturers of  special  fruit  fertilizers.  But  you  must  be  sure  that 
your   trees   do   not  need   moisture    more   than   they   need    fertilizers,   for 


168  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

without  adequate  moisture  fertilizers  cannot  do  their  best  work. 
The  increase  of  the  humus  content  of  the  soil,  either  secured  by 
stable  manure  or  by  the  plowing  under  of  winter-grown  cover  crops, 
is  desirable,  as  they  not  only  give  the  trees  more  plant  food,  but 
make  the  soil  also  more  retentive  of  moisture.  You  will  have  to 
experiment  along   this   line   to   see  just  what  is   best   for  your   trees. 

Consult  the  Trees. 

Can  I  scud  yoii  a  little  soil  out  of  my  one-year-old  pear  orchard  so 
that  you  can  advise  me  what  I  can  do  to  improve  its  fertility.  The  trees 
are  fairly  thrifty,  but  as  fruit  grozving  is  mv  pleasure  I  zvish  to  make  it 
a  model  orchard  and  add  zvhatcver  it  requires  of  nitrogen,  humus,  etc., 
immediately  so  as  to  increase  the  groivth  for  this  summer.  Next  zvinter 
I  intend  to  put  manure  around  them  and  cultivate  about  every  other 
month. 

Careful  experimenting  with  fertilizers  will  teach  you  more  than 
analysis  would  do,  because  the  behavior  of  the  tree  under  various 
conditions  tells  you  more  than  a  chemist  possibly  could.  Besides, 
we  are  of  the  conviction  that  on  good  soils  young  fruit  trees  should 
not  be  pushed  beyond  the  growth  which  they  would  naturally  make 
with  a  regular  and  adequate  moisture  supply.  Be  careful  about  using 
fertilizers  on  young  trees,  either  in  the  summer  or  in  the  winter. 
When  they  come  to  bearing  age  and  yield  large  crops  of  fruit,  that 
is  another  question.  Any  California  soil  which  will  not  grow  young 
fruit  trees  thriftily  should  not  be  used  for  orchard  purposes  unless 
an  amateur  desires  to  grow  trees  on  a  picturesque  lot  of  rocks  or 
sand. 

Results  of  Fertilizing   Olives. 

We  have  lOO  acres  in  olives  about  six  miles  northeast  of  Rialto  in 
San  Bernardino  county.  In  igo8  zve  got  about  five  tons  from  the  lOO 
acres.  We  began  fertilizing  and  cultivating  in  1909,  and  have  put  on  the 
100  acres  about  the  same  amount  of  fertiliser  each  year.  In  1909  we 
got  /|5  tons;  in  1910,  ii\5  tons,  and   1911  is  estimated  at  32^5  to  350  tons. 

It  is  important  that  your  olive  trees  are  responding  to  good 
treatment  and  fertilization.  Unfortunately,  that  does  not  seem  to  be 
always  the  case  and  a  good  many  olive  trees  have  been  made  into 
firewood  because  nothing  seemed  to  bring  them  into  satisfactory 
bearing.  Good  bearing  olive  trees  are  now  among  the  very  best  of 
our  horticultural  properties,  while  non-bearing  olive  trees  are  worth 
about  $7  a  cord  for  fire  wood. 

Nursery  Fertilizers. 

I  have  light  sandy  loam,  zuell  drained.  It  has  been  in  blackberries, 
and  I  now  have  it  planted  to  nursery  fruit  tree  stock.  I  have  given  it 
this  spring  tzvo  applications  of  nitrate  of  soda,  but  no  other  fertiliser. 
Will  the  nitrate  act  alone,  or  must  I  apply  also  the  phosphate  and  potash 
to  get  results? 


Soils,  Fertilizers  anh  Irrigation  169 

Nitrate  of  soda  will  act  alone  and  will  stimulate  growth,  and 
there  are  cases  in  which  there  is  enough  phosphate  and  potash 
already  in  the  soil  to  act  with  it.  Usually,  however,  it  is  customary 
to  use  a  complete  fertilizer  containing  phosphate  and  potash  as  well 
as  nitrogen,  in  order  that  the  plant  may  be  more  roundly  supplied 
and  promoted,  and  one  would  be  a  little  safer  in  using  that  sort  of 
fertilizer  than  in  relying  upon  the  nitrate  of  soda  alone.  You  will, 
of  course,  be  careful  not  to  use  these  fertilizers  in  too  large  amounts, 
for  nitrate  of   soda   is   especially   dangerous   if  used   in   excess. 

Almond  Hulls  and  Sawdust. 

Is  there  any  fertilising  value  in  the  hulls  of  almonds?  Would  pine 
sawdust  from  the  lumber  mills  be  a  good  substance  to  mix  in  and  plozu 
under  in  a  three-acre  adobe  patch  in  order  to  loosen  and  lighten  the 
soil  for  truck  gardening? 

Almond  hulls  have  considerable  fertilizing  value,  but  they  are 
slow  to  decompose,  and,  therefore,  may  be  a  long  time  unused  by 
the  plant.  They  also  have  a  good  feeding  value  for  stock,  and  if 
you  can  expose  them  in  the  corral  so  the  stock  can  eat  as  they  like, 
this  is  the  best  way  to  get  them  into  fertilizing  form.  If  they  can 
be  cheaply  ground  their  availability  as  a  fertilizer  would,  of  course, 
be  quickened.  Redwood  sawdust  is  better  than  pine  sawdust,  but 
any  kind  of  sawdust  can  be  made  to  serve  a  good  purpose  in  mellow- 
ing heavy  soils  if  not  used  to  excess  and  if  there  is  plenty  of  moisture 
to  promote  decay. 

Fertilizing  Fruit  Trees. 

/  have  an  orchard  of  prunes,  apricots  and  cherries,  which  has  been 
bearing  since  some  30  years  ago,  without  fertilisation,  except  possibly 
muddy  sediment  from  occasional  irrigations  of  mountain  streams.  Various 
people  are  advocating  the  use  of  nitrates  and  other  fertilisers.  Should 
I  have  samples  of  this  earth  analysed  in  order  to  ascertain  ivhat  the 
soil  most  needs? 

To  find  out  whether  your  trees  need  fertilization,  study  the  tree 
and  the  product  and  do  not  depend  upon  chemical  analysis  of  the 
soil.  If  your  trees  are  growing  thriftily  and  have  sufficiently  good- 
sized  leaves  of  good  color,  and  if  fruit  of  good  size  and  quality  is 
obtained,  it  is  not  necesssary  to  think  of  fertilization.  If  the  trees 
are  not  satisfactory  in  all  these  respects,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
determine  whether  they  have  moisture  enough  during  the  later  part 
of  the  summer.  This  should  be  determined  by  digging  or  boring 
to  a  depth  or  three  or  four  feet  in  July  or  August.  The  subsoil 
should  be  reasonably  moist  in  order  to  sustain  the  tree  during  the 
late  summer  and  early  fall  when  strong  fruit  buds  for  the  coming 
year  will  be  finished.  If  you  are  sure  the  moisture  supply  is  ample, 
then  fertilization  either  with  stable  manure  or  with  commercial  fer- 
tilizers containing  especially  nitrates  and  phosphates  should  be  under- 
taken experimentally,  in  accordance  with  suggestions  for  application 
made   to  you   by   dealers  in   these   articles,   who   are   usually   well   in- 


170  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

formed  by  observation.  When  you  have  the  tree  to  advise  you  of 
the  condition  of  the  soil,  you  do  not  need  a  chemist,  although  if  the 
tree  manifests  serious  distress  and  is  unable  to  make  satisfactory 
growth  the  suggestions  of  a  chemist  may  be  very  helpful. 

Fertilizing  Oranges. 

What  is  the  general  and  what  do  you  consider  the  ideal,  manuring, 
and  when  applied  for  orange  trees  from  15  to  12  years  old  under  irri- 
gation F  I  use  about  2  cwt.  each  of  superphosphate,  nitrate  of  soda  and 
sulphate  of  potash  per  acre,  but  am  dissatisticd  zvith  my  yields  as  com- 
pared with  yours  in   California. 

There  is  not  only  no  standard  for  fertilizing  orange  trees,  but 
there  is  no  "ideal"  which  might  be  considered  as  a  basis  for  a  stand- 
ard. All  growers  who  are  awake  to  the  necessity  of  doing  something 
for  bearing  trees,  try  all  things  and  hold  fast  to  what  (they  think) 
is  good.  Practically  none  of  them  has  any  enduring  conviction  or 
demonstration  as  to  what  is  good,  but  they  keep  on  trying.  There  is, 
however,  one  clear  and  enduring  conviction,  and  that  is,  that  con- 
tinuous fertilizing  must  be  done  for  profit,  and  our  best  growers  are 
using  the  same  materials  you  mention  in  considerably  larger  amounts 
than  you  apply,  and  use  also  other  forms  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers. 
The  amounts  of  superphosphate  and  nitrate  which  you  use  would  be 
considered  homeopathic  treatment  by  our  growers. 

Cow  Stable  Drainage  for  Fruit. 

/  have  been  told  that  the  drainings  from  a  cozv  barn  make  an  ex- 
cellent fertilizer  for  orange  and  lemon  trees,  in  fact,  anywhere  on  plants 
where  manure  is  considered  beneficial. 

The  drainage  from  a  cow  barn  is  excellent  for  fertilizing  almost 
any  crop  unless  it  is  used  in  too  large  quantity.  If  it  should  be 
combined  with  a  considerable  amount  of  water  used  for  cleaning  out 
the  stable,  it  would  be  excellent  for  the  irrigation  of  all  kinds  of  fruit 
trees.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  not  to  oversaturate  the  ground, 
which  would  be  the  case  if  the  washing  of  the  stable  was  allowed  to 
run  continuously  alongside  a  single  row  of  trees.  The  water  should 
be  changed  from  row  to  row  in  succession,  cultivating  the  ground 
meantime  to  promote  aeration  and  to  prevent  too  great  compacting 
of  the  soil. 

Seed  Farm  Refuse  as  a  Fertilizer. 

Would  cleanings  from  sweet  peas  or  all  kinds  of  seeds  groivn  on  a 
seed  farm  be  of  any  value  as  a  fertilizer  on  sandy  loam  soil  for  an 
orchard f  This  has  been  in  a  pile  for  three  years  or  more,  and  I  can 
get  it  for  the  hauling.  There  are  a  hundred  loads  or  more  of  it  and 
not  very  far  to  haul. 

It  would  be  worth  more  on  a  heavy  soil,  because  the  danger  of 
drying  out  would  be  less  and  the  surety  of  reduction  to  humus 
greater.     To  get  the  highest  value  from  such  stufif  it  should  be  com- 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  171 

posted  with  water  and  turning  in  heaps,  but  that  would  occasion 
expense  beyond  value  probably,  unless  it  could  be  composted  with 
manure  for  market  garden  purposes.  The  hauling  might  be  good 
work  for  idle  teams.  Spread  the  stuflf  rather  thinly  to  be  covered 
in  with  fall  plowing,  so  that  its  decay  could  be  promoted  during  the 
rainy  season. 

Slow  Stuff  as  a  Fertilizer, 

Hozv  can  K't'  use  sazi'Jitst  and  slun'iiigs  from  our  high  school  shop 
so  as  to  combine  it  zvith  street  su'eepings,  knvn  cutti)tgs,  etc.,  and  insure 
ready  decay  zvithout  objectionable  features? 

Do  not  mix  sawdust  and  shavings  with  lawn  clippings  and  street 
sweepings,  because  of  the  great  difference  in  susceptibility  to  decay. 
The  lawn  clippings  and  street  sweepings,  which  would  contain  con- 
siderable horse  manure,  would  be  readily  transformed  into  a  good 
fertilizer  by  composting.  Such  treatment,  however,  would  have  no 
appreciable  effect  upon  sawdust  or  shavings  for  a  considerable  period 
of  time,  and  they  would  still  be  too  coarse  in  their  character  to  be 
of  any  value  unless  you  have  to  deal  with  heavy  clay  soil,  and  in  that 
case  the  sawdust  and  fine  shavings  might  be  dug  in  at  once  and 
trusted  to  decay  slowly  in  the  soil,  at  the  same  time  improving  its 
friability  by  their  coarser  particles.  If,  however,  you  are  dealing  with 
light  sandy  loam,  such  coarse  material  would  cause  too  rapid  drying 
out  and  injure  the  plant,  which  might  be  benefited  by  lawn  clippings 
and  street  sweepings.  The  best  way  to  get  rid  of  the  sawdust  and 
shavings  is  to  set  up  an  altar,  such  as  we  have  in  our  own  backyard — 
a  piece  of  an  old  boiler  about  two  feet  in  diameter  and  two  and  a 
half  feet  high,  in  which  we  currently  burn  all  rubbish  which  is  not 
available  for  quick  composting  into  a  fertilizer. 

Lime  on  Sandy  Soil. 

Do  you  think  300  pounds  of  lime  per  acre  would  help  a  sandy  soil 
zvhich  has  not  been  enriched  by  pasturing  or  legumes?  Of  course,,  zve 
zvould  not  apply  the  lime  until  next  fall  before  plozving. 

Lime  is  not  usually  called  for  in  a  sandy  soil,  which  probably  re- 
quires jlirect  fertilizing  with  stable  or  commercial  fertilizers. 

Lime  on  Alfalfa. 

What  effect  docs  putting  lime  on  land  have  in  holding  moisture? 
Also,  zvill  it  pay  to  put  it  on  a  large  field  of  alfalfa?  The  land  is  adobe. 
I  can  get  slaked  lime  for  the  hauling,  distance  being  about  five  miles. 

The  lime  will  make  the  land  more  friable  and,  therefore,  less  dis- 
posed to  bake  and  lose  moisture  by  evaporation.  Alfalfa  is  hungry 
for  lime  and  is  generally  advanced  by  the  application  of  it. 

Fertilizing  Alfalfa. 

Can  new  cow  manure  be  put  on  alfalfa?  Is  not  the  best  way  to  use 
the   above   as   a   fertiliser   in   form   of   liquid   being   run   from   barn  via 


172  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

pipes  to  a  settling-tank  and  from  there  via  irrigation  ditches  to  the  land 
to  be  irrigated?  What  is  the  best  way  to  get  rid  of  cozu  manure  so  as 
to  keep  a  barn  sanitary  and  the  place  free  from  stench? 

Cow  manure  can  be  used  to  advantage  on  alfalfa.  Corrals  can 
be  cleaned  up  and  the  manure  spread  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy 
season.  During  the  winter  the  manure  can  be  spread  as  it  is  pro- 
duced and  very  good  results  will  be  noticed  in  the  growth  during 
the  following  summer.  It  is  perfectly  rational  for  you  to  use  the 
liquid  fertilizer  as  you  propose  in  connection  with  irrigation  water, 
but  this  is  not  generally  done  because  of  the  cost  of  the  outfit  and 
the  labor  of  handling  the  material  in  that  way.  The  best  way  to 
keep  a  barn  sanitary  is  to  keep  it  clean,  removing  all  the  waste 
matter  to  a  considerable  distance  daily,  allowing  nothing  to  ac- 
cumulate, and  have  the  stable  drainage  arranged  so  that  the  stable 
can  be  frequently  flushed  out  into  good  drainage  outlets,  carrying 
the  water  to  grass  or  alfalfa  land  if  possible. 

Fertilizing   Corn. 

We  are  going  to  plant  about  20  acres  to  corn  on  a  sidehill  and 
intend  to  put  some  fertili::cr  on,  but  ivant  to  give  it  to  the  corn  only: 
Would  it  be  a  good  plan,  after  zve  have  marked  out  our  rows,  to  scatter 
some  fertiliser  in  these  marks  and  put  the  corn  right  on  top  of  it? 

We  take  it  you  ask  about  the  use  of  a  readily  soluble  commercial 
fertilizer.  If  so,  you  can  do  as  you  propose,  being  careful  not  to  use 
too  much.  The  operation  of  planting  will  distribute  the  fertilizer 
through  enough  soil  if  the  application  is  not  too  heavy.  The  effect 
will  depend  something  upon  what  showers  you  get  after  planting. 

Scrap  Iron  as  a  Fertilizer. 

Is  cast  or  other  iron  in  small  pieces  plowed  into  the  land  of  any 
benefit  to  trees  as  a  fertilizer?  If  so,  what  would  be  the  value  as  such 
per  100  pounds?  Junk  dealers  sometimes  offer  25  cents  per  100  pounds. 
If  it  has  any  value  as  a  fertiliser,  I  am  satisfied  it  must  be  worth  four 
times  that  price.  We  pay  three  cents  a  pound  for  sulphate  of  iron  as  a 
fertiliser.  Of  course,  it  is  a  salt  and  dissolves  quickly,  therefore,  I  believe 
cast  iron,  even  if  it  works  slozvly,  has  some  value,  and  at  the  same  time 
farmers  can  clean  up  and  get  rid  of  a  lot  of  rubbish. 

In  most  cases  the  California  soils  are  sufficiently  supplied  with 
iron  by  nature.  Iron  scraps  have  a  little  and  remote  value  because 
they  are  so  slowly  available  by  the  process  of  rust  disintegration.  It 
might,  therefore,  be  worth  while  for  farmers  to  bury  such  scrap  iron 
as  accumulates  on  the  place  below  the  reach  of  the  cultivating  tools. 
But  it  would  not  be  profitable  to  buy  iron  scraps  at  junk  dealers' 
price,  nor  would  it  be  profitable  to  haul  this  material  any  long  dis- 
tance, even  if  it  could  be  had  for  nothing. 

Kelp  as  a  Fertilizer. 

Are  there  ill  effects  from  using  sea  kelp  as  a  fertiliser  for  orange 
trees? 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  173 

There  is  no  ill  effect.  Sea  kelp  has  been  dragged  from  the  beaches 
at  low  tide,  partly  dried  and  used,  for  centuries  perhaps,  as  field  fer- 
tilizer for  all  sorts  of  crops  in  Europe,  and  for  decades,  to  some 
extent,  on  the  New  England  coast.  The  dangerous  substance  in  it 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  that  is  not  present  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  cause  trouble.  The  great  difficulty  lies  in  securing  and  transport- 
ing the  substance,  for  less  than  its  fertilizing  equivalent  can  be 
obtained  by  purchase  of  other  more  concentrated  manures. 

Applying  Thomas   Phosphate. 

When  is  the  best  time  to  apl^Iy  I'lionias  phosphate  slag  on  orchard 
land? 

As  Thomas  phosphate  is  slowly  soluble,  it  can  be  applied  at  any 
time  during  the  rainy  season  without  danger  of  loss,  and  for  the 
same  fact,  it  should  be  applied  early  during  the  rainy  season  in  order 
to  be  available  to  trees  during  the  following  summer's  growth.  It 
ought,  perhaps,  to  be  added  that  other  forms  of  phosphate  have 
largely  displaced  slag  during  the  last  few  years  in  the  United  States, 
other  forms  being  more  available. 

Sugar   Factory   Lime  for   Fertilizing. 

Is  the  lime  from  a  sugar  factory  a  good  fertiliser  for  either  oranges 
or  walnuts;  if  so,  about  luhat  amount  to  the  acre  would  you  recommend? 

If  your  land  needs  lime  or  if  it  is  heavy  and  needs  to  be  more 
friable,  or  if  you  have  reason  to  think  that  it  may  be  soured  by 
exclusion  of  air  or  by  excessive  use  of  fermenting  manures,  the 
refuse  lime  you  speak  of  will  do  as  a  corrective  just  as  other  lime 
does,  though,  perhaps,  not  so  actively.  Beyond  that  there  is  nothing 
of  great  value  in  it.  You  can  use  two  or  three  applications  of  500 
pounds  to  the  acre  without  overdoing  it — if  your  land  needs  it  at 
all. 

Nitrate  With  Stable  Manure. 

/  am  going  to  plant  about  2000  phi)ifs  of  rliubarb.  I  intend  to  put 
some  cow  and  horse  manure  under  the  plants  as  a  fertiliser,  but  I  do 
not  think  I  zi'ill  have  enough  for  all  the  plants,  so  I  bought  some  nitrate 
of  lime,  with  the  intention  of  mixing  the  coiv  and  horse  manure  with 
the  lime  nitrate,  which  I  thought  would  allozv  me  to  spread  the  manure 
much  thinner  and  I  could  cover  more  surface.  Now  I  am  not  sure  but 
the  nitrate  of  lime  zvill  burn  the  manure  if  mixed  with  it. 

You  can  mix  either  nitrate  of  lime  or  nitrate  of  soda  with  the 
stable  manure  as  you  propose;  in  fact,  it  is  frequently  done.  These 
nitrates  are  neutral  salts  and  do  not  act  on  manure  as  caustic  lime 
or  wood  ashes  would  do.  They  are  quite  content  to  keep  along 
without  kicking  their  neighbors.  But,  of  course,  the  more  nitrate 
you  add  the  more  careful  you  must  be  about  using  too  much  of  the 
mixture,  and  as  for  putting  manure  under  any  plant,  at  spring  plant- 
ing particular,  it  is  dangerous  business. 


174  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Nitrate  of  Soda. 

How  shall  I  apply  nitrate  of  soda  as  fertiliser  for  roses  and  other 
flowers  and  lawns  during  the  summer  months? 

One  has  to  be  very  careful  in  the  use  of  nitrate  of  soda  not 
to  use  too  much  and  not  to  apply  it  unevenly,  so  that  too  much 
is  brought  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  particular  plants.  From  one 
to  two  hundred  pounds  an  acre  evenly  distributed  is  the  usual  pre- 
scription for  nitrate  of  soda,  although  in  the  case  of  bearing  orange 
trees  considerably  larger  amounts  have  been  successfully  used.  This 
would  be  at  the  rate  of  about  one  ounce  to  one  square  yard  of  sur- 
face. It  would  be  a  safe  application  to  begin  with  and  could  be 
increased  a  little  on  the  basis  of  observation  of  results.  Of  course, 
the  application  should  be  accompanied  by  copious  irrigation  in  order 
to  dissolve  and  distribute  the  substance. 

Fertilizing  Strawberries. 

/  have  half  an  acre  of  strazvherries  which  will  fruit  their  second 
season  this  spring,  and  half  an  acre  set  last  month.  I  had  intended  to 
use  nitrate  of  soda  on  them,  but  was  talking  to  a  friend  who  told  me  it 
would  kill  my  soil.  That  the  first  year  it  would  produce  an  enormous 
crop  and  the  next  year  I  couldn't  raise  anything.  Which  would  be  better 
to  use  here,  stable  manure  or  commercial  fertiliser? 

It  is  true  that  nitrate  of  soda  is  a  stimulant  of  plants,  and  by 
rendering  soil  fertility  immediately  available  may  seem  to  reduce 
the  supply  later,  and  yet  it  is  a  most  available  forcing  fertilizer 
if  used  with  great  caution,  not  over  200  pounds  to  the  acre  evenly 
scattered  over  the  whole  surface  or  a  less  amount,  of  course,  if  con- 
fined to  particular  areas.  If  used  in  excess  it  may  actually  kill  the 
plants.  Still  nitrate  of  soda  is  being  used  actively  and  intelligently 
by  nearly  all  growers  of  plants  and  must  be  counted  on  the  whole 
a  valuable  agency.  If  you  can  get  stable  manure,  nothing  is  better 
as  a  complete  plant  food.  Application  to  strawberries  must  be  made 
at  the  close  of  the  season,  rubbish  scraped  away  and  manure  applied 
and  allowed  to  stand  on  the  surface  during  the  early  rains,  being 
worked  into  the  soil  during  the  rainy  season.  If  the  soil  is  light, 
sandy  loam,  too  much  coarse  material  must  be  avoided.  Therefore, 
well-rotted  manure  is  important  on  such  soils  while  on  a  heavy  soil 
coarser  material  may  be  used  to  advantage  if  applied  early  in  the 
rainy  season.  If  you  have  no  well-rotted  manure,  a  complete  com- 
mercial fertilizer  will  give  best  results. 

Late  Applications  of  Nitrate. 

/  have  some  prune  trees  zvhich  blossoDicd  some  time  ago  and  the 
prunes  are  already  set,  and  of  small  size.  Would  you  recommend  me  to 
use  an  application  of,  say  lOO  pounds  per  acre  of  nitrate  of  soda,  applied 
immediately,  or  is  it  a  little  too  late  in  the  season  to  get  the  desired 
result? 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  175 

It  would  be  perfectly  safe  to  use  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda 
to  the  acre  well  distributed  now;  in  fact,  you  could  safely  use  twice 
as  much,  but  we  doubt  if  you  would  get  any  benefit  from  it  unless 
you  should  irrigate,  for  there  is  no  reason  to  expect  showers  that 
would  have  penetrating  powers  enough  to  carry  the  nitrate  any  ap- 
preciable distance  into  the  soil.  Of  course,  the  nitrate  could  be  plowed 
or  cultivated  in  to  a  considerable  depth,  but  that  would  probably  result 
in  losing  moisture  by  deep  opening  or  turning,  which  would  do 
more  harm  than  any  gain  which  the  nitrate  produces,  if  it  were  to 
become  available.  Our  judgment  would  be,  then,  that  it  is  too  late 
for  any  benefit  to  accrue  unless  the  land  can  be  irrigated. 

Charcoal  is  a  Medicine,  Not  a  Food. 

Recently  a  lumberyard  burned,  leaving  quite  a  quantity  of  charcoal. 
I  hare  a  lot  50x130  feet  in  rhubarb.  Would  the  charcoal  be  of  any 
service  on  that  lot  as  a  fertilizer?  I  nozv  have  it  zocll  fertilized  ivith 
horse  manure,  but  ivould  like  to  use  the  charcoal  if  it  would  be  of  any 
material  assistance   to   the  plants. 

Charcoal  is  of  no  value  as  a  fertilizer.  It  is  practically  inde- 
structible in  the  soil.  In  fact,  they  are  digging  up  now  charcoal  in 
the  graves  of  ancient  Egyptians,  who  departed  this  life  five  thousand 
years  ago.  Charcoal  has  corrective  influence  in  absorbing  some 
substances  which  might  make  the  soil  sour  or  otherwise  inhospitable 
to  plants.  It  has  been  found  desirable  sometimes  to  mix  a  certain 
amount  of  charcoal  with  soil  used  in  potting  plants  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  such  trouble.  The  only  way  to  make  your  charcoal 
of  any  value  as  a  fertilizer  would  be  to  set  it  on  fire  again  and 
maintain  the  burning  until  it  was  reduced  to  ashes,  which  are  a 
source  of  potash  and,  therefore,  desirable,  but  it  will  probably  cost 
more  than  the  product  of  potash  will  be  worth. 

Humus  Burning  Out. 

I  would  like  to  knozu  whether  or  not  dry-plowing  land,  in  preparation 
for  sowing  oats  for  hay,  injures  the  soil?  I  have  heard  that  dry  plowing 
tends  to  wear  out  the  soil,  as  the  soil  is  exposed  to  the  sun  a  long  time 
before  harrowing.  I  have  been  dry-plowing  my  land  to  kill  the  weeds, 
but  had  a  light  crop  of  hay  this  year. 

There  is  believed  to  be  what  is  called  "a  burning  out  of  humus," 
by  long  exposure  of  the  soil  to  the  intense  heat  of  our  interior  dis- 
tricts. It  is  probable  that  the  reduction  of  humus  is  due  more  to 
the  lack  of  effort  to  maintain  the  supply  than  to  the  actual  destruction 
of  it  by  culture  methods.  Such  a  little  time  as  might  intervene 
between  dry  plowing  and  sowing  could  not  be  charged  with  any 
appreciable  destruction  of  soil  fertility.  It  is  altogether  more  prob- 
able that  your  hay  crop  was  less  from  loss  of  moisture  than  from 
loss  of  other  plant  food;  and  it  is  desirable  to  harrow  a  dry  plowing, 
not  so  much  to  save  the  soil  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  as 
to  conserve  the  moisture,  which,  as  you  know,  will  rise  from  below 


176  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

and  will  rapidly  be  evaporated  from  the  undisturbed  bases  of  your 
furrows.  Therefore,  we  should  harrow  a  dry  plowing  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable, but  with  particular  reference  to  the  moisture  supply  rather 
than   to  other   forms  of  fertility. 

Straw  for  Humus. 

Do  you  consider  straw  good  to  plow  under  for  humus,  and  which  kind, 
wheat,  oat,  or  barley  straw,  is  best? 

Straw,  by  its  decay  in  the  soil,  produces  humus  and,  therefore 
acts  in  the  same  way  just  as  does  the  decay  of  other  forms  of  vege- 
tation. As,  however,  straw  is  less  easily  decomposed  than  fresh 
vegetation,  it  is  less  valuable  and  may  be  troublesome  by  acquiring 
a  greater  amount  of  moisture  by  interfering  with  cultivation  or  by 
tending  to  dry  out  the  soil  to  the  injury  of  other  plants.  If  the  soil 
is  heavy  and  moisture  abundant,  straw  may  be  desirable,  while  in  the 
case  of  a  light  soil  and  scant  moisture,  may  be  injurious.  There 
is  no  particular  difference  in  the  straw  of  the  diflferent  grains  from 
this  point  of  view. 

The  Best  Legume  for  Cover  Crop. 

What  would  you  advise  to  sow  as  a  crop  to  plow  under t  When  should 
it  be  sowed,  and  when  plowed  under? 

The  best  crop  for  green-manuring  in  any  locality  is  the  one 
which  will  make  the  best  growth  when  surplus  moisture  is  available 
for  it,  and  when  its  growth  can  be  undertaken  with  least  interference 
with  irrigation,  cultivation  and  other  orchard  operation.  Generally 
in  California,  such  a  crop  can  be  most  conveniently  grown  during 
the  rainy  season,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  State  where  irrigation 
water  is  available,  a  summer  growth  can  be  procured  with  very  satis- 
factory results;  so  that  we  are  now  growing  in  California  both  winter- 
growing  legumes,  like  field  peas,  vetches,  burr  clover,  etc.,  which  are 
hardy  enough  to  grow  in  spite  of  the  light  frosts  which  may  prevail, 
and  are  also  growing  summer  legumes  which  thrive  under  high  tem- 
perature, like  cowpeas  and  other  members  of  the  bean  family,  and 
for  which  water  can  be  spared  without  injury  to  the  fruit  trees  which 
share  the  application  of  the  land  with  them.  The  plants  which  are 
worth  trying  are  burr  clover,  common  or  Oregon  vetch,  Canadian 
field  pea,  and  the  common  California  or  Niles  pea.  Whichever  one 
of  these  makes  the  best  winter  growth  so  that  it  can  be  plowed_  under 
early  in  the  spring,  say  in  February  or  March,  while  there  is  still 
plenty  of  moisture  in  the  soil  for  its  decay,  without  robbing  the  trees 
or  rendering  the  soil  difficult  of  summer  cultivation,  is  the  plant 
for  you  to  use  largely.  All  these  plants  should  be  sown  in  California 
valleys  and  foothills,  as  soon  as  there  is  moisture  enough  from  rainfall 
to  warrant  you  in  believeing  they  will  catch  and  continue  to  grow. 
If  the  land  is  light  they  can  be  put  in  with  a  cultivator  and  plowed 
under  deeply  in  the  spring,  as  stated.  If  the  land  is  heavy,  probably 
a  shallow  plowing  would  be  better  to  begin  with. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  177 

Cowpeas  for  Cover  Crop. 

/  planted  cowpeas  bctivecn  peach  trees  zchich  I  have  kept  irrigated; 
when  should  they  be  plowed  under? 

Cowpeas  will  be  killed  by  frost  in  most  places  and  should,  there- 
fore, be  plowed  in  this  fall  whenever  you  have  a  large  growth  of 
green  stuff  and  the  ground  gets  moist  enough  so  that  the  trees  will 
not  be  endangered  by  drying  out  of  the  soil,  which  is  likely  to  occur 
after  plowing  in  coarse  material,  unless  the  soil  is  kept  moist  by 
rain   or   otherwise. 

Garden  Peas  for  Green  Manure. 

Would  it  be  possible  to  plant  the  Yorkshire  Hero  pea  in  an  orange 
grove  as  late  as  December  25  and  get  a  crop  from  the  peas?  Would  this 
pea  add  much  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil? 

You  can  sow  any  garden  peas  as  late  as  December  25,  if  the 
ground  is  in  good  condition  and  the  temperature  not  too  low.  They 
are  grown  as  a  winter  crop  except  when  the  ground  freezes.  You 
would  not  get  as  much  good  for  the  grove  by  growing  these  peas 
for  the  market  as  you  would  by  plowing  the  whole  growth  under 
green,  but  you  certainly  will  get  advantage  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  pea  straw  and  of  the  root  growth  of  the  plant. 

Grass  for  Green  Manuring. 

/  wish  to  sow  this  fall  some  green  grass  to  be  plowed  in  next  spring 
to  improve  the  soil  of  part  of  my  land.  I  read  for  that  purpose  a  bulletin 
I  had  from  the  government,  but  the  conditions  are  so  different  here  in 
California  that  I  am  very  much  puzzled  zvhich  kind  to  select. 

There  is  no  grass  which  grows  quickly  enough  to  be  worth  seed- 
ing in  the  fall  for  spring  plowing.  It  is  a  good  deal  better  to  use 
a  grain,  either  barley  or  rye,  for  the  seed  is  cheap,  the  growth  quick 
and  you  can  get  a  good  deal  of  green  stuff  to  plow  under.  Legumes 
are,  of  course,  better  because  of  their  ability  to  absorb  atmospheric 
nitrogen,  but  any  plant  which  makes  a  large  green  growth  is  good, 
and  it  is  better  to  have  a  heavy  weight  of  wild  vegetation  than  to 
have  a  light  growth  of  an  introduced  legume. 

Manure  with  a  Clover  Crop. 

/  have  an  old  apple  orchard  in  which  I  intend  to  soiv  burr  clover. 
In  order  to  get  the  clover  to  grow  I  knoiv  that  I  shall  have  to  use  fer- 
tilizer of  some  kind  and  this  is  what  I  want  your  advice  about. 

If  you  can  get  it,  use  stable  manure  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  clover 
seed.  Stable  manure  alone  wall  restore  the  ^wmus  and  overcome  the 
rebellious  behavior  of  the  soil.  Possibly  yoti  cannot  secure  sufficient 
quantities  of  it.  In  that  case  a  little  with  the  burr  clover  seed  will 
give  the  plant  a  good  start,  or  use  a  complete  fertilizer  to  secure  the 
growth  of  a  legume  in  the  freest  and  quickest  way. 


178  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Fenugreek  as  a  Cover  Crop. 

Fenugreek  has  been  recommended  to  be  as  a  nitrogen-gathering  plant, 
but  I  cannot  Hud  information  as  to  the  amount  of  nitrogen  it  gathers 
in  its  roots  and  tops,  nor  the  amount  of  crop  per  acre. 

Fenugreek  is  a  good  nitrogen  gatherer  and  is  desirable  for  green 
manuring  wherever  you  can  get  a  good  growth  of  the  plant.  You 
can  count  it  worth  as  much  as  peas,  vetches,  etc.,  if  you  can  get  as 
much  growth  of  the  plant.  It  is  most  largely  used  in  the  lemon  dis- 
trict near  Santa  Paula.  The  best  way  to  proceed  would  be  to  try 
a  small  area  of  all  the  nitrogen  gathering  plants  of  which  you  can 
get  the  seed  easily,  and  determine  by  your  own  observation  which 
makes  the  best  growth  under  your  conditions. 

Improvement  of  Cementing  Soils. 

/  would  like  some  advice  in  handling  the  "conenty"  gravel  soil. 
Manure  is  beneficial  in  loosening  up  the  soil,  but  there  is  not  enough 
available.  Would  the  Canadian  field  pea  make  a  satisfactory  growth 
here  if  soivn  as  soon  as  the  rains  begin?  I  would  try  to  grow  either 
peas  or  vetch  and  plozv  under  in  February  or  March  and  then  set  trees 
or  vines  on  the  land. 

The  way  to  mellow  your  soil  is  certainly  to  use  stable  manure 
or  to  plow  under  green  stufif,  as  you  propose.  This  increases  the 
humus  which  the  soil  needs  and  imparts  all  the  desirable  characters 
and  qualities  which  humus  carries.  You  ought  to  get  a  good  growth 
of  Canadian  field  peas  or  common  California  field  peas  or  the  common 
Oregon  vetch  by  sowing  in  the  fall,  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be 
moistened  by  rain  or  irrigation,  and,  if  the  season  is  favorable,  secure 
enough  growth  for  plowing  under  in  February  to  make  it  worth 
while.  Be  careful,  however,  not  to  defer  planting  trees  and  vines  too 
late  in  order  to  let  the  green  stuff  grow,  because  this  would  hazard 
the  success  of  your  planting  by  the  reduction  of  the  moisture  supply 
during  the  following  summer  by  the  amount  which  might  be  required 
to  keep  the  covered-in  stuff  decaying,  plus  loss  of  moisture  from  the 
fact  that  the  covered  stuff  prevented  you  from  getting  thorough  sur- 
face cultivation  during  the  dry  season.  For  these  reasons  one  is  to 
be  careful  about  planting  on  covered-in  stufif  which  has  not  had  a 
chance  to  decay.  This  consideration,  of  course,  becomes  negligible 
if  you  have  water  for  summer  irrigation,  but  if  you  expect  to  get  the 
growth  of  your  trees  and  vines  with  the  rainfall  of  the  previous  winter, 
be  careful  not  to  waste  it  in  either  of  the  ways  which  have  been 
indicated,  and  above  all,  do  not  plant  trees  and  vines  too  late. 
Theoretically,  your  position  is  perfect.  The  application  of  it,  how- 
ever, requires  some  care  and  judgment.  Rather  than  plant  too  late, 
you  had  better  grow  the  green  stufif  the  winter  after  the  trees  have 
been   planted. 

Needs   Organic   Matter. 

/  have  what  I  believe  to  be  decomposed  sandstone.  Many  rocks 
are   still  projecting   out   of  land  zvhich  I  blast  and  break   up.     The  soil 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  179 

works  freely  zvhcn  moist  or  wet,  but  when  dry  it  takes  a  pick-axe  to 
dig  it  up;  a  plozu  ivon't  touch  it.  Among  my  young  fruit  trees  I  tried 
to  grotv  peas,  (yeans,  carrots  and  beets,  and  although  I  freely  irrigated 
them  during  the  summer  and  fall,  and  although  I  planted  at  different 
times,  my  peas  and  beans  have  been  a  total  failure,  and  the  beets,  carrots 
and  onions  nearly  so.  For  years  the  land  has  grozvn  nothing  but  weeds. 
Your  soil  needs  organic  matter  which  would  make  it  more  easy 
of  cultivation,  more  retentive  of  moisture,  and  in  every  way  better 
suited  to  the  growth  of  plants.  Liberal  applications  of  stable  manure 
would  produce  best  effects.  No  commercial  fertilizer  would  begin 
to  be  so  desirable.  If  you  can  dig  into  the  soil  large  amounts  of 
weeds  or  other  vegetable  waste  material,  you  would  be  proceeding 
along  the  same  line,  but  stable  manure  is  better  on  account  of  its 
greater  fertilizing  content.  You  ought  to  be  thankful  that  the  soil 
has  spunk  enough  to  grow  weeds.  The  Immanent  Creator  is  still 
doing  the  best  he  can  to  help  you  out;  take  a  hand  yourself  on  the 
same  line. 

Two  Legumes  in  a  Year. 

/  have  land  on  which  I  n'ish  to  plant  to  fruits,  and  I  ivish  to  build 
up  the  soil  all  I  caji,  by  planting  cover  crops  and  ploiving  under.  What 
zuould  be  the  best  to  plant  this  fall,  to  be  plowed  under  next  spring,  and 
to  plant  again  next  spring  to  ploiv  under  in  the  fall?  I  will  not  be  able 
to  plant  any  trees  before  next  fall  or  the  following  spring. 

Get  in  vetches  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  shape  in  the  fall. 
Plow  them  under  early  in  the  spring  and  close  the  covering  and 
compact  the  green  stuff  by  running  a  straight  disk  over  the  ground 
after  plowing.  This  will  help  decay  and  save  moisture.  Follow 
with  cow  peas  as  soon  as  you  are  out  of  the  frost,  disking  in  the 
seed  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  stuff  previously  covered  in.  Do  not 
wait  to  put  under  the  winter  growth  until  it  is  safe  to  put  on  the 
cowpeas,  for,  if  you  do,  you  will  lose  so  much  moisture  that  the  cowpeas 
will  not  amount  to  much. 

Handling  Orchard  Soil. 

We  average  about  J5  inches  of  rainfall.  With  this  heavy  rainfall, 
is  there  any  advantage  to  be  gained  by  early  plowing  and  clean  cultivation 
right  through  the  xvinterf  Would  such  ploiving  and  cultivation  result 
in  any  serious  loss  of  plant  foodf  Would  you  advise  an  early  or  late 
application  of  nitrogen,  such  as  nitrate  or  guano?  If  there  is  any  loss 
from  an  early  application,  can  it  be  determined  by  any  means? 

The  old  policy  of  clean  winter  cultivation  has  been  largely  aban- 
doned. Nearly  everyone  is  trying  to  grow  something  green  during 
the  rainy  season  to  plow  under  toward  the  end  of  it.  Even  those 
who  do  not  sow  legumes  for  this  purpose  are  plowing  under  as 
good  a  weed  cover  as  they  can  get.  This  improves  the  soil  both  in 
plant  food  and  in  friability,  which  promotes  summer  pulverization  and 
saves  moisture  from  summer  evaporation.  Much  less  early  plowing 
is  done  than  formerly  unless  it  be  shallow  to  get  in  the  seed  for  the 


180  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

cover  crop;  the  deeper  plowing  being  done  to  put  it  under.  Guano 
can  be  applied  earlier  in  the  winter  than  nitrate,  which  can  be  turned 
in  with  the  cover  crop,  while  the  former  may  be  sown  with  the  seed 
to  promote  the  winter  growth.  Whether  you  are  losing  your  nitrate 
or  not  the  chemist  might  determine  for  you  by  before-and-after 
analyses.  If  you  are  a  good  observer  you  may  detect  loss  by  absence 
of  the  effects  you  desire  to  secure. 

Soaking   Seeds. 

Do  you  think  it  a  good  practice  to  soak  seeds  before  planting? 

It  is  more  desirable  with  some  seeds  than  others  and  when  the 
ground  is  rather  dry  or  the  sowing  time  rather  late,  than  when 
sowing  in  moister  ground  or  earlier  in  the  rainy  season,  when  heavy 
rains  are  to  be  expected.  Soaking  is  simply  a  way  to  be  sure  that 
the  seed  covering  has  ample  moisture  for  softening  and  the  kernel 
has  what  it  requires  for  awakening  its  germ  and  meeting  its  needs. 
The  soil  may  not  always  have  enough  to  spare  for  these  purposes 
and  germination  may  be  delayed  or  started  and  arrested.  Ordinarily 
seeds  can  be  helped  by  soaking  a  few  hours  in  water  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  Some  very  hard  seeds  like  those  of  acacia  trees,  etc., 
are  helped  by  hot  water — even  near  the  boiling  point. 

Irrigating    Palms. 

My  palms  are  quite  small,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  groiv;  they  seem  to 
be  drying  up. 

The  growth  of  palms  is  proportional  to  the  amount  of  soil  mois- 
ture available,  providing  it  is  not  in  excess  and  not  too  alkaline. 
Some  palms  are  quite  drouth-resisting,  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  think 
of  a  palm  as  a  desert  plant  and  try  to  make  a  desert  for  it.  A 
young  palm,  especially,  needs  regular  and  ample  water  supply  until 
it  gets  well  established.  Your  plants  may  be  drying  up,  or  they  may 
have  had  too  much  frost  or  too  much  alkali.  If  they  are  not  too 
far  gone,  they  will  come  out  later  if  you  give  them  regular  moisture 
and  cultivation. 

Water  from  Wells  or  Streams. 

One  of  our  neighbors  insists  that  zvater  from  a  well  is,  in  the  long 
run,  very  hard  on  the  land,  and  that  irrigation  zvater  is  much  to  be 
preferred. 

There  is  no  characteristic  and  permanent  difiference  between 
waters  from  "wells  and  waters  from  streams  so  far  as  irrigation  is 
concerned.  The  character  depends  upon  the  sources  from  which 
both  are  derived.  Some  wells  may  carry  too  much  mineral  matter  in 
the  form  of  salt,  alkali,  etc.,  and  some  stream  waters  sometimes  carry 
considerable  alkali.  For  this  reason  some  wells  may  be  better  than 
streams  and  some  streams  better  than  wells.  There  is  no  general 
rule  in  the  matter.  Your  neighbor  may  be  right  as  applied  to  your 
location,    and    may    know    from    his    experience    that    the    well    water 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  181 

carries  too  much  undesirable  material.  That  could  only  be  determined 
by  analysis,  and  the  analysis  must  be  made  when  the  water  is  rather 
low,  because  during  the  rainy  season,  or  soon  after  it,  the  water 
may  have  less  mineral  impurity  than  later  in  the  season  when  it 
may  be  more  concentrated. 

Shall  He  Irrigate  or  Cultivate? 

Our  soil  is  of  an  excellent  quality,  and  I  feel  if  the  moisture  ivcre 

properly    conserved    by   suitable  methods   it    could    be    made    to   produce 

fruits  or  some  other  z'cry  much  more  profitable  than  from  hay  and  grain 
crops. 

Whether  you  can  grow  deciduous  fruits  successfully  without  irri- 
gation depends  not  only  upon  how  well  you  conserve  the  moisture 
by  cultivation,  but  also  whether  the  total  rainfall  conveys  water 
enough,  even  if  as  much  as  possible  of  it  is  conserved.  Again,  you 
might  find  that  thorough  cultivation  will  give  you  satisfactory  young 
trees,  but  would  not  conserve  moisture  enough  for  the  same  trees 
when  they  come  into  bearing.  This  proposition  should  be  studied 
locally.  If  you  can  find  trees  in  the  vicinity  which  do  give  satis- 
factory fruit  under  the  rainfall,  you  would  have  a  practical  demon- 
stration which  would  be  more  trustworthy  than  any  forecast  which 
could  be  prepared  upon  theoretical  grounds. 

Condensation  for  Irrigation. 

If  a  circular  funnel  of  zvaterproofed  building  paper,  or  some  better 
cheap  dcz'ice,  Zi'cre  fastened  about  the  base  of  the  tree  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  catch  and  concentrate  most  of  the  drippings  from  the  leaves,  and 
that  water  made  to  run  dozvn  through  a  tube  leading  a  suitable  depth 
into  the  earth,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  number  of  foggy  nights  that 
occur  in  many  localities  during  the  season  might  thus  supply  ample  zvater 
for  a  tree's  needs. 

The  probability  is  that  water  would  not  be  secured  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  serve  any  notable  irrigation  purposes,  or  if  the  fogs 
were  so  thick  as  to  yield  water  enough,  the  sunshine  would  be  too 
scant  for  the  success  of  the  plant.  Put  your  idea  to  the  test  and 
see  how  much  water  you  could  get  from  a  tree  of  definite  leaf  area, 
which  could  be  readily  estimated. 

Winter  Irrigation. 

Last  May  I  irrigated  my  prune  trees  for  the  first  time,  again  during 
the  first  tzco  zveeks  of  last  December.  If  no  rain  should  come  zvithin  the 
next  tzvo  zveeks,  zvould  you  advise  me  to  irrigate  then?  Should  I  plozv 
before  irrigating,  or  should  irrigation  be  done  before  the  buds  szvellf 

Unless  your  ground  is  deeply  wet  down  by  the  rains  which  are 
now  coming,  irrigate  it  once,  and  do  not  plow  before  irrigating.  The 
point  is  to  get  as  much  water  into   the  ground  and  as  much  grass 


182  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

growth  on  top  as  you  can  before  the  spring  plowing.  Never  mind 
about  the  swelling  of  the  buds.  The  trees  will  not  be  affected  in- 
juriously by  getting  a  good  supply  of  winter  water  into  the  soil. 
There  might  be  some  danger  with  trees  which  bloom  late  in  the 
spring,  like  citrus  trees  or  olives,  because  by  that  time  the  ground 
has  become  warm  and  the  roots  very  active.  At  the  blooming  time 
of  deciduous  trees  less  danger  would  threaten,  because  there  is  less 
difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  ground  and  the  water 
which  you  were  then  applying  from  a  running  stream.  If  you  irrigated 
in  furrows  and,  therefore,  did  not  collect  the  water  in  mass,  its 
temperature  would  rise  by  contact  with  air,  which  would  be  another 
reason  for  not  apprehending  trouble  from  it. 

How  Much   Water  for   Oranges? 

Hoiv  much  water  would  you  consider  absolutely  necessary  to  carry 
to  full-bearing  citrus  trees  on  clay  loam — that  is,  how  many  acres  to  a 
miner's  inch,  figuring  nine  gallons  per  minute  to  the  inch? 

It  would,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  age  of  the  trees,  as  old 
bearing  trees  may  require  twice  as  much  as  young  trees.  We  would 
estimate  for  bearing  trees,  on  such  retentive  soil,  30-acre  inches  per 
year  applied  in  the  way  best  for  the  soil. 

Damping-off. 

My  orange  seed-bed  stock  has  "damp-off."  Some  say  "too  much 
water,"  "not  enough  water,"  "put  on  lime,"  etc.  I  use  a  medium  amount 
of  water  and  more  of  my  stock  is  affected  than  that  of  any  other  grower. 
One  man  has  kept  his  well  soaked  since  planting,  and  only  about  six 
plants  were  affected.  Another  has  used  but  little  zvater,  keeping  them 
very  dry;  he  has  lost  none. 

Damping-off  is  due  to  a  fungus  which  attacks  the  tender  growth 
when  there  is  too  much  surface  moisture.  It  may  be  produced  by 
rather  a  small  amount  of  water,  providing  the  soil  is  heavy  and  the 
water  is  not  rapidly  absorbed  and  distributed.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  lighter  soil  taking  water  more  easily  may  grow  plants  without 
damping-ofif,  even  though  a  great  deal  more  water  has  been  used 
than  on  the  heavier  soil.  Too  much  shade,  which  prevents  the  sun 
from  drying  the  surface  soil,  is  also  likely  to  produce  damping-off, 
therefore,  one  has  to  provide  just  the  right  amount  of  shade  and  the 
right  amount  of  ventilation  through  circulation  of  the  air,  etc.  The 
use  of  sand  on  the  surface  of  a  heavier  soil  may  save  plants  from 
damping-ofif,  because  the  sand  passes  the  water  quickly  and  dries, 
while  a  heavier  surface  soil  would  remain  soggy.  Lime  may  be  of 
advantage  if  not  used  in  too  great  quantities  because  it  disintegrates 
the  surface  of  the  soil  and  helps  to  produce  a  dryness  which  is 
desirable.  Keeping  the  surface  dry  enough  and  yet  providing  the 
seedlings  with  moisture  for  a  free  and  satisfactory  growth  is  a  matter 
which   must   be   determined   by  experience   and  good  judgment. 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  183 

Irrigated  or  Non-Irrigated  Trees. 

Is  there  any  difference  between  the  same  kind  of  fruit  trees  grozvn 
without  irrigation  and  zvith  it? 

It  does  not  make  a  particle  of  difference,  if  the  trees  are  grown 
well  and  matured  well.  Over-irrigated  trees  or  trees  growing  on  land 
naturally  moist  may  be  equally  bad.  Excessively  large  trees  and 
stunted  trees  are  both  bad;  with  irrigation  j-ou  may  be  more  likely  to 
get  the  first  kind;  without  it  you  are  more  likely  to  get  the  latter. 
There  is,  however,  a  difference  between  a  stunted  tree  and  a  well- 
grown  small  tree,  and  as  a  rule  medium-sized  trees  are  most  desirable 
than  overgrown  trees.  The  mere  fact  of  irrigation  does  not  make 
either  good  trees  or  bad  trees:  it  is  the  man  at  the  ditch. 

Too  Little  Rather  Than  Too  Much  Water. 

Looking  through  an  orchard  of  i8-year-old  prune  trees  on  river- 
bottom  land,  I  found  a  number  of  the  trees  had  died.  A  well  bored  in 
the  orchard  strikes  water  at  about  15  feet.  I  find  no  apparent  reason  for 
the  death  of  these  trees  unless  it  is  that  the  tap  roots  reach  this  body  of 
ivater  and  are  injuriously  affected  thereby. 

We  do  not  believe  that  water  at  15  feet  depth  could  possibly  kill 
a  prune  tree.  It  is  more  likely  that  owing  to  spotted  condition  of 
the  soil,  gravel  should  occur  in  different  places,  and  with  gravel  three 
or  four  feet  below  the  surface  a  tree  might  actually  die  although 
there  was  plenty  of  water  at  a  depth  of  15  feet.  There  is  more  danger 
that  the  trees  died  from  lack  of  water  than  from  an  oversupply  of 
it,  and  it  is  quite  likely  also  that  you  could  pump  and  irrigate  to 
advantage  large  trees  which  did  not  seem  to  be  up  to  the  standard 
of  the  whole  place,  as  manifested  by  lack  of  bearing,  smallness  of 
leaves,  which  would  be  apt  to  turn  j'ellow  too  early  in  the  season. 

Possibly  Too  Much  Water, 

My  trees  are  four  years  old  and  are  as  folloivs:  Peach,  fig,  loquat, 
apple,  apricot  and  plum.  Last  year  they  had  plenty  of  blossoms,  but  I 
got  no  fruit.     I  aht.>ays  zvatered  them  twice  a  week  in  summer. 

You  are  watering  your  trees  too  much;  stimulating  their  growth 
too  much,  and  this,  while  a  tree  is  young,  is  apt  to  postpone  its  fruit 
bearing.  Give  the  soil  a  good  soaking  about  once  a  month,  unless 
you  are  situated  in  a  sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  in  which  more  frequent 
applications  may  be  necessary. 

Too  Little  Water  After  Dynamiting. 

In  planting  almonds  on  a  dry  hard  soil  I  dynamited  the  holes  and 
ran  about  200  gallons  of  water  into  each  hole  before  planting.  About 
95  per  cent  of  the  trees  started  growth,  but  seem  nozv  to  be  in  a  some- 
zvhat  dormant  state,  the  leaves  of  some  being  slightly  zviltcd.  All  the 
trees  were  watered  since  planting.    I  have  been  told  I  made  a  mistake  by 


184  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

throwing  water  in  the  dynamited  holes.     When  the  holes  were  watered 
the  ground  was  very  dry  and  the  water  disappeared  in  a  few  minutes. 

You  have  used  too  little  water  rather  than  too  much.  Dry  soil 
of  fine  texture  can  suck  up  an  awful  lot  of  moisture,  which  can  be 
drawn  ofif  so  far,  or  so  widely  distributed,  that  there  will  not  be 
enough  for  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  roots.  The  dynamiting 
tended   to   deep   drying   and   necessitated   much   more   irrigation. 

Irrigating  Young  Trees. 

We  have  just  put  out  lo  acres  to  walnuts.  The  party  zvho  put  them 
out  wants  me  to  have  some  boxes  or  troughs  made  15  inches  long  ivith  a  3- 
inch  opening,  and  put  in  on  the  slant  so  as  to  have  the  zvater  hit  the 
roots. 

Many  such  arrangements  of  boxes,  perforated  cans,  pieces  of  tile, 
etc.,  have  been  proposed  during  the  last  fifty  years  in  California  for 
accomplishing  the  purposes  which  are  mentioned  in  your  letter,  and 
all  such  devices  have  been  abandoned  as  undesirable.  They  may  bring 
the  water  to  bear  upon  a  lower  level  as  intended,  but  the  free  access 
of  air  and  the  fact  that,  with  their  use,  proper  stirring  of  the  soil  is 
neglected  renders  them  undesirable.  The  best  way  to  water  young 
trees  singly  is  to  make  a  trench  around  tree,  but  not  allowing  the 
water  to  touch  the  bark,  applying  the  water  and  then  thoroughly  hoe 
when  the  surface  soil  comes  into  proper  condition.  Young  trees 
treated  in  this  way,  with  the  surface  always  in  good  condition,  do  not 
require  much  water.  The  amount  depends,  of  course,  upon  whether 
the  soil  is  naturally  porous  or  retentive. 

Underground   Irrigation. 

How  extensively  used  and  with  what  results  is  the  underground  tile 
system  for  irrigation  used,  and  what  especial  character  of  soil  is  it  best 
suited  for? 

Not  extensively  at  all;  in  fact,  if  there  is  an  acre  of  it  which  has 
been  for  three  years  in  continuous  and  successful  operation,  it  has 
escaped  us.  After  forty  years  of  trial  of  different  systems,  none  has 
demonstrated  value  enough  to  warrant  its  use.  Theoretically,  they  are 
excellent;  in  practice  they  are  defective.  Surface  application  in  dif- 
ferent ways,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  accompanied  with 
thorough  cultivation,  is  the  only  thing  that  at  the  present  time  prom- 
ises satisfactory  results,  except  that  where  the  land  suits  it,  irrigation 
by  under-flow  from  ditches  on  higher  elevations  is  being  successfully 
used  on  small  areas  in  the  foothills.  For  gardens  the  most  promising 
arrangement  seems  to  be  a  laying  of  drain  tiles  rather  near  the  sur- 
face, which  shall  be  taken  up  each  year,  cleaned  of  silt  and  plant 
roots,  and  relaid  along  the  rows  before  planting;  but  this  calls  for  too 
much  labor,  except  perhaps  for  amateur  gardeners.  The  kind  of  soil 
best  suited  to  such  a  system  is  a  medium  loam  which  will  distribute 
water  sufficiently  to  avoid  saturation  and  air-exclusion.     Both  a  heavy 


Soils.  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  185 

soil  which  does  this,  and  a  coarse  sandy  loam  which  takes  water  down 
out  of  reach  of  shallow-rooting  plants  too  rapidly  and  lacks  capillarity 
to  draw  it  up  again,  are  ill  adapted  to  underground  distribution. 

Irrigation   of   Potatoes. 

IVill  you  kindly  tell  ntc  when  is  the  fro/^er  time  to  irrigate  potatoes, 
before  they  bloom  or  after  they  bloom,  and  do  they  require  much  ivater? 

It  should  seldom  be  necessary  to  irrigate  potatoes  after  the 
bloom  appears.  Potatoes  do  not  need  much  water,  and  there  is 
danger  of  giving  them  too  much.  It  is  absolutely  essential  to  see 
that  there  is  no  check  in  the  growth  of  the  plant,  for  once  the 
growth  is  at  all  checked  by  drought,  and  irrigation  is  done,  a  new 
lot  of  potatoes  start  and  new  and  old  growth  of  tubers  are  worthless. 
Give  what  irrigation  is  needed  and  make  cultivation  do  the  rest. 
The  secret  of  success  is  keeping  the  soil  continually  at  the  right 
moisture,  so  that  the  first  growth  of  the  plant  may  continue  regularly 
until  the  tubers  are   brought   to  maturity. 

Irrigated    or    Non-Irrigated    Apples. 

Where  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  favorable  to  the  raising  of 
apples,  what  effect  has  irrigation  on  them? 

The  commercial  product  of  California  apples  is  chiefly  made  upon 
deep  soils  in  districts  of  ample  rainfall  so  that  the  fruit  can  be 
perfected  and  the  trees  maintained  in  thrift  by  thorough  cultivation 
and  without  irrigation.  In  the  foothill  and  mountain  regions,  how- 
ever, apple  trees  are  irrigated  and  first-class  fruit  produced  by  the 
process.  There  is  no  particular  virtue  in  the  absence  of  irrigation 
nor  in  the  presence  of  it.  All  that  the  tree  requires  is  that  the 
moisture  supply  should  be  adequate  and  timely.  There  are  un- 
doubtedly many  apple  orchards  grown  without  irrigation  where  a 
little  water  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  would  be  a  great 
advantage  for  the  perfection  of  winter  varieties. 

Irrigating  Walnuts — Checks  or  Furrows. 

Which  is  the  best  method  to  irrigate  a  tract  of  ZS  acres  of  sandy 
sediment  soil,  nearly  level,  preparatory  to  planting  walnuts? 

By  all  means  use  the  furrow  system  of  irrigation  unless  your 
land  should  be  so  light  that  the  water  would  sink  in  the  furrows 
and  distribution  would  be  very  unequal  without  covering  the  whole 
surface  as  is  done  by  filling  checks.  When  the  land  cannot  be 
covered  well  by  the  furrow  system,  checking  is  resorted  to,  but  not 
otherwise. 

Summer  and   Fall   Irrigation. 

Is  it  desirable  to  irrigate  peach  trees  in  the  fall  after  the  crop  is 
gathered? 

The  popularity  of  autumn  irrigation  for  peaches  in  the  San 
Joaquin   valley   is   based   upon   the   experience   of   the   last   few   years 


186  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

where  trees  that  have  been  allowed  to  become  dormant  too  early  in 
the  season  and  have  been  weakened  by  a  long  period  of  soil-drought 
during  the  autumn,  have  cast  their  blossoms  or  manifested  other 
indications  of  weakness  during  the  following  year.  It  is  thoroughly 
rational  to  apply  irrigation  to  hold  the  leaves  and  secure  their  service 
in  the  strengthening  of  bloom  buds  for  the  following  year  by  irriga- 
tion. Such  irrigation  should  be  applied  immediately  after  the  fruit 
is  gathered  or  even  before  that,  if  the  yellowing  of  the  leaves  in- 
dicates lack  of  strength  in  the  tree  and  the  frequency  and  amount  of 
irrigation  during  the  autumn  depends  upon  whether  the  soil  will 
hold  moisture  enough  to  carry  the  tree  to  its  proper  period  of  dor- 
mancy. This  may  be  determined  by  the  aspect  of  the  trees  and 
by  digging  down  two  or  three  feet  to  see  whether  the  soil  carries 
moisture  which  is  likely  to  be  sufficient  until  the  coming  of  the 
rains.  Whether  late  irrigation  will  be  necessary  is  also  determinable 
by  the  character  of  the  soil;  on  close  retentive  soil  it  may  not  be 
necessary,  while  on  loose,  sandy  or  gravelly  soil  it  may  be  essential 
to  the  life  of  the  tree.  One  has  to  settle  all  these  matters  by  judg- 
ment and  not  by  recipe. 

Fertilizers  in  Irrigation  Water. 

Do  yoii  recommend  putting  fertilisers  in  irrigating  water?  I  am 
about  to  water  the  orchard  and  am  thinking  of  putting  some  nitrate  in 
the  water. 

You  can  distribute  any  soluble  fertilizer  by  dissolving  it  in  irri- 
gation water,  but  few  have  ever  done  it  because  of  the  difficulties  of 
getting  equal  strength  in  running  water.  It  is  much  easier  to  dis- 
tribute on   land  before  irrigation. 

Irrigating  Alfalfa  on  Heavy  Soils, 

Hozv  does  alfalfa  succeed  on  adobe  and  soils  slightly  modified  from 
it?    Does  irrigation  ivork  well  on  adobe  planted  to  alfalfa? 

If  you  get  the  irrigation  adjusted  so  that  the  soil  shall  not  be 
water-logged  and  so  that  the  water  does  not  stand  on  the  surface 
when  the  sun  is  hot,  you  can  get  plenty  of  good  alfalfa  on  a  heavy 
soil.  Irrigation  on  adobe  soils  must  be  done  more  frequently  and 
a  less  amount  at  each  application  to  guard  against  the  dangers 
named  above. 

How  Much  Water  for  Crops? 

Some  of  my  land  is  heavy,  but  the  most  of  it  is  light  soil.  I  want 
alfalfa  mostly,  some  potatoes  and  grain,  and  later  oranges,  olives  and 
other  fruit.  How  much  water  in  inches  or  acre  feet  is  required  per  acre 
per  year  for  the  irrigation  of  it? 

The  amount  of  water  required  to  grow  dififerent  crops  depends 
upon  the  crop  itself,  upon  the  time  of  the  year  in  which  it  grows, 
the  character  of  the  soil,  etc.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  stating 
how  much  water  would  be  used  for  all  crops  on  all  soils,  and  at  all 


Soils,  Fertilizers  and  Irrigation  187 

times  of  the  year.  The  range  would  be  from,  say,  ten  acre  inches 
for  irrigation  of  deciduous  fruits,  which  need  moisture  supplementary 
to  rainfall;  twice  or  thrice  as  much  for  citrus  fruit  trees;  four  or 
five  times  as  much  for  alfalfa  where  a  full  number  of  cuttings  are 
required.  These  are,  of  course,  only  rough  estimates  which  would 
have  to  be  modified  according  to  local  rainfall  and  soil  character. 
Water  should  be  applied  frequently  enough  to  keep  the  lower  soil 
amply  moist.  A  color  of  moisture  is  not  enough  and  a  muddy  condi- 
tion results  from  too  much  water.  One  has  to  learn  to  judge  when 
there  is  moisture  enough,  and  a  good  test  of  this  to  take  up  a  handful 
of  soil,  squeeze  it  and  open  the  hand.  If  the  ball  retains  its  shape 
it  is  probably  moist  enough.  If  it  has  a  tendency  to  crack  upon 
opening  the  hand,  it  is  too  dry.  This  test,  of  course,  is  somewhat 
affected  by  the  character  of  the  soil,  but  one  has  to  form  the  best 
judgment   possible   how  far  allowance   has   to   be   made   for   that. 

Sewage   Irrigation. 

What  is  the  usefulness  or  harmfuhicss  of  the  outflozu  from  septic 
tanks  for  use  on  fruits  and  vegetables? 

There  is  no  question  as  to  the  suitability  of  the  affluent  from 
a  septic  tank  for  irrigation  purposes.  Waste  waters  are  sometimes 
injurious  when  they  are  loaded  with  antiseptics,  but  the  septic  tank 
will  not  work  unless  it  has  a  chance  for  free  fermentation  in  the 
absence  of  antiseptics,  therefore,  this  objection  against  waste  water 
does  not  hold  with  the  out-flow  from  septic  tanks.  It  has  the  ad- 
vantage over  straight  sewage  irrigation  because  fermentation  in  the 
septic  tank  is  believed  to  free  the  water  from  many  dangerous  germs, 
though    not    all    of    them. 

Creamery  Wastes  for   Irrigation. 

Will  the  zvaste  zvater  from  a  creamery,  pumped  into  a  ditch  and  used 
for  irrigating  sandy  loam  orchard  land,  or  nursery  stock,  in  any  zvay 
be  injurious  to  the  land  or  the  trees? 

It  will  depend  upon  the  amounts  of  salt  and  alkaline  washing 
materials  which  it  carries.  This  would  be  governed,  of  course,  by  the 
amount  of  fresh  water  used  for  dilution  in  the  irrigation  ditch.  There 
are  two  ways  to  determine  the  question.  One  would  be  to  make  an 
analysis  of  a  sample  of  the  water  taken  when  it  contains  the  largest 
amount  of  these  materials  after  the  dilution  with  ditch  water.  Another 
wa-"  would  be  to  plant  some  corn,  squashes,  barley  and  other  plants, 
so  that  they  would  be  freely  irrigated  by  the  water  during  one  grow- 
ing season.  This  would  be  rather  better  than  an  analysis,  because 
everybody  could  see  whether  the  plants  grew  well  or  not,  and  would 
be  apt  to  be  better  convinced  by  what  they  see  than  by  an  opinion 
which  a  chemist  might  give  on  the  basis  of  an  analysis.  The  use 
of  this  water  on  a  sandy  loam  would  obviously  be  less  injurious 
than  upon  a  heavy  retentive  soil. 


188  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

House  Waste  Water. 

Is  it  feasible  to  use  zvash  zvatcr,  etc.,  for  zvatering  fruit  trees  and 
vegetables? 

Kitchen  sink  water  is  rot  desirable  because  of  its  great  content 
of  grease,  but  wash-tub  and  bath-tub  water  are  good.  Strong  soap- 
suds should  be  mixed  with  considerable  rinsing  water  to  escape 
excessive  content  of  alkali.  Run  the  water  in  hoe-ditches,  along  tlie 
rows  of  vegetables,  hoeing  thoroughly  as  soon  as  the  land  hoes  well, 
changing  the  runs  of  water  so  that  the  soil  does  not  become  com- 
pacted but  is  kept  friable  and  lively. 

Draining  a  Wet  Spot. 

/  have  a  spot  of  about  an  acre  that  in  a  wet  winter  becomes  very 
miry  and  as  a  rule  is  zvet  up  to  July.  Can  I  put  in  a  ditch  tzvo  and  one- 
half  feet  deep  and  fill  in  zvith  small  stones  for  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a 
half,  until  I  can  afford  to   buy  tiles? 

Drains  made  of  small  stones  are  often  quickly  filled  with  soil 
and  stop  running.  However,  it  will  work  for  a  time,  and  such  drains 
were  formerly  largely  employed  in  Eastern  situations  when  cash  was 
scant  and  stones  abundant.  Dig  the  ditch  bottom  to  a  depth  of  not 
less  than  3  or  3^  feet,  then  put  in  the  stones  deep  enough  not  to  be 
interfered  with  by  plowing.  If  you  have  flat  stones  you  can  make 
quite  a  water-way  with   them  and  fill  in  with  small  stones  above  it. 


PART  V.   LIVE  STOCK  AND  DAIRY 

Legal  Milk  House. 

What  is  a  legal  milk  house  in  California? 

The  State  dairy  law  says  little  concerning  the  construction  or 
equipment  of  the  milk  house.  It  says  that  the  house,  or  room,  shall 
be  properly  screened  to  exclude  flies  and  insects,  and  is  to  be  used 
for  the  purpose  of  cooling,  mixing,  canning  and  keeping  the  milk. 
The  milk  room  shall  not  be  used  for  any  other  purpose  than  milk 
handling  and  storing,  and  must  be  100  feet  or  more  distant  from 
hogpen,  horse  stable,  cesspool  or  similar  accumulation  of  filth,  and 
must  be  over  50  feet  from  cow  stalls  or  places  where  milking  is 
done.  In  regard  to  the  size  of  the  milk  room  and  equipment,  nothing 
is  said  provided  it  is  large  enough  for  the  milk  to  be  handled  con- 
veniently. Concrete  milk  houses,  however,  had  best  have  smooth- 
finished  floors  and  walls.  The  interior  of  the  milk  house  is  also  to 
be  whitewashed  once  in  two  years  or  oftener.  If  milk  from  the 
dairy  is  to  go  to  a  city,  the  requirements  will  be  more  severe  than 
provided  in  the  State  law,  and  must  conform  to  the  ordinances  of 
the  city  to  which  the  milk  is  to  be  sent. 

Cure  for  a  Self-Milker. 

What  shall  I  do  for  a  young  cow  that  milks  herself f 
Fit  a  harness  consisting  of  two  light  side  slats  and  a  girth  and 
neck  strap  in  such  a  way  that  the  cow  cannot  reach  her  udder.     Unless 
she  is  particularly  valuable  for  milk,  it  will  save  you  a  lot  of  worry 
to  fix  her  up  for  beef. 

Strong  Milk. 

Hozv  can  I  overcome  strong  milk  in  a  three-quarter  Jersey  cozv?  I 
had  been  feeding  alfalfa  hay  zvith  two  quarts  alfalfa  meal  and  one  quart 
middlings  twice  a  day.  Thinking  the  strong  milk  came  from  the  feed 
I  changed  to  oat  hay  and  alfalfa  with  a  soft  feed  of  bran  and  middlings. 

There  is  nothing  in  either  ration  that  could  cause  strong  milk,  nor 
will  a  change  of  feed  likely  benefit  the  trouble.  If  the  cow  is  in 
good  physical  condition  the  trouble  probably  comes  from  the  entrance 
of  bacteria  during  or  after  milking.  Thoroughly  clean  up  around  the 
milking  stable,  followed  by  a  disinfection  of  the  premises.  Have  the 
flanks,  udder  and  teats  of  the  cow  thoroughly  cleaned  before  milking 
and  scald  all  utensils  used  for  the  milk.  Harmful  bacteria  may  have 
gotten  well  established  on  the  premises  and  the  entrance  of  a  few 
is  enough  to  seriously  affect  the  flavor  of  the  milk.  Once  the  trouble 
is  checked  it  can  be  kept  down  with  the  usual  sanitary  methods. 


190  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Separator  as  Milk  Purifier. 

/  have  a  neighbor  who  contends  that  a  cream  separator  purifies  the 
milk  that  passes  through  it.  I  say  that  it  does  not  purify  the  milk.  I 
agree  that  it  does  take  out  some  of  the  heavy  particles  of  dirt  and  Alth, 
but  that  it  cannot  take  out  what  is  already  in  solution  with  the  milk. 

The  purification  naturally  cannot  be  very  great,  and  if  milk  is 
produced  in  unsanitary  fashion,  running  through  the  separator  will 
do  little,  if  any,  good.  Nevertheless,  the  separator  does  remove  more 
than  just  the  solid  particles  of  dirt.  The  purifying  comes  by  leaving 
behind  the  separator  slime,  so  called,  the  slimy  material  left  behind 
after  a  good  deal  of  milk  has  been  run  through.  In  fact,  some 
creameries  separate  milk,  only  to  mix  milk  and  cream  again,  largely 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  impurities  found  in  the  slime.  In 
this  slime  are  not  only  the  impurities  that  fall  into  the  milk,  but  also 
some  of  the  fibrous  matter  that  is  part  of  the  milk,  and  this  gathers, 
being  pulled  out  by  gravity  as  are  the  fat  particles,  it  seems  to 
gather  with  it  a  few  more  bacteria  than  remain  in  the  milk  itself. 
Material  in  real  solution,  as  sugar  is  in  solution  in  water,  naturally  is 
practically  unaffected  by  separation.  You  are,  therefore,  right  to  the 
extent  that  you  cannot  produce  unsanitary  milk  and  clean  it  with  the 
separator,  but  your  neighbor  is  right  to  the  extent  that  the  separator 
does  remove  some  impurities  and  is  used  just  for  that  purpose.  There 
is  also  in  the  dairy  trade  a  centrifugal  milk  clarifier  which  is  con- 
structed in  somewhat  similar  manner  to  a  cream  separator,  but  acts 
dififerently  on  the  milk  in  not  interfering  with  cream  rising  by  gravity 
when  separated  cream  and  milk  are  mixed  after  cleaning. 

Butter  Going  White. 

/  bought  some  butter  and  during  the  zvarm  iveather  it  melted.  About 
40  or  50  per  cent  was  zvhite,  zvhile  the  balance  was  yellow  and  went  to 
the  top.  When  the  butter  remelted,  the  yellow  portion  melted,  leaving  the 
zvhite  portion  retaining  its  shape.  The  zvhite  portion  did  not  taste  like 
ordinary  butter.  The  butter  made  from  our  cozvs'  cream  melted  at  a 
higher  temperature,  but  did  not  have  a  zvhite  portion.  Why  did  our 
butter  not  act  like  the  creamery  butter? 

Samples  of  butter  have  occasionally  been  sent  to  this  office  that 
have  turned  white  on  the  outside,  and  since  the  white  part  has  a  very 
disagreeable,  tallowy  flavor,  people  think  that  tallow  or  oleomargine 
has  been  mixed  with  it,  but  we  have  never  been  able  to  find  any 
foreign  substance  in  any  of  the  samples.  We  have  found  that  some 
of  the  best  brands  of  butter  will  turn  white  first  on  the  outside  and 
the  white  color  will  gradually  go  deeper  if  the  butter  is  exposed  to 
a  current  of  air  or  if  left  in  the  sun  a  short  time. — F.  W.  Andreason, 
State  Dairy  Bureau. 

What   Is  "Butter-fat?" 

/  would  like  to  know  what  "butter-fat"  means.  I  have  asked  farmers 
this  question  and  no   one  seems  to   knozv.     I  suppose  all  parties  dealing 


Live  Stock  and  Dairy  191 

with  creameries  understand  what  the  standard  of  measure  or  weight  of 
butter-fat  is,  but  it  is  tny  guess  that  there  are  thousands  of  farmers  whom, 
if  they  were  asked  this  question,  zvoiild  not  knoiv.  We,  of  course,  know 
that  butter  is  sold  by  the  pound  and  cream  by  the  pint,  quart  or  gallon, 
but  what  is  butter-fat  sold  by? 

Butter-fat  is  the  yellow  substance  which  forms  the  larger  part  of 
butter.  Besides,  this  fat  butter  is  composed  of  16  per  cent  or  less  of 
water  and  small  amounts  of  salt,  and  other  substances  of  which  milk 
is  composed.  From  80  to  85  per  cent  or  so  of  ordinary  butter  is  the 
fat  itself.  It  is  sold  by  weight.  The  cream  from  which  butter  is 
made  is  taken  to  the  creamery  and  weighed,  not  measured.  A  small 
sample  is  tested  by  the  so-called  Babcock  test  to  determine  the  exact 
percentage  of  fat,  and  payment  mode  on  this  basis.  For  instance,  if 
100  pounds  of  cream  is  one-third  butter-fat,  the  dairyman  receives 
pay  for  2Z  'A  pounds  of  this  substance.  If  it  is  only  one-quarter  fat, 
he  receives  pay  for  25  pounds.  Ordinary  cream  varies  within  these 
limits,  but  may  be  much  richer  or  thinner.  Cream  after  the  butter- 
fat  is  removed  is  much  like  skimmed  milk,  although  it  has  less  water 
in  it. 

Why  Would  Not  Butter  Come? 

What  is  the  trouble  ivifh  cream  that  you  churn  on  from  Monday 
until  Saturday,  then  have  to  give  up  in  despair  and  turn  it  out  to  the 
hogsf  We  warmed  it,  and  we  cooled  it,  and  used  a  dairy  thermometer, 
but  nothing  would  do. 

If  the  cream  was  in  churnable  condition  otherwise,  the  probability 
is  that  it  was  too  cool  when  you  started  churning.  It  should  be 
about  62°   Fahrenheit. 

Drying  a  Persistent  Milker. 

My  cow  is  to  come  fresh  about  the  middle  of  next  month,  and  in  the 
last  two  weeks  her  milk  has  changed  in  some  way  so  that  the  cream 
makes  very  yellozv  butter  and  comes  to  butter  nearly  as  quick  as  when 
the  cow  was  fresh.  Would  it  best  for  her  to  go  entirely  dry  before  com- 
ing fresh,  or  will  it  be  all  right  if  she  does  not  entirely  dry  upf 

If  your  cow  has  been  able  to  pick  up  any  special  amount  of  grass 
since  the  rains  came  it  might  add  to  the  color  of  the  butter.  A 
cow's  milk  also  gets  richer  toward  the  end  of  her  lactation  period, 
which  may  make  a  richer  cream  and  make  the  butter  come  quickly 
There  does  not  seem  to  be  anything  to  worry  about.  The  cow  would 
probably  do  better  if  she  could  become  entirely  dry  before  calving, 
but  unless  you  can  easily  dry  her  up  it  would  be  dangerous  to  try 
to  force  her  to  do  so. 

Butter-fat  in  Sweet  and  Sour  Cream. 

The  creamery  zvagon  takes  our  cream  every  other  day.  Without 
ice  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  the  cream  sweet  during  the  hot  weather. 
By  the  time  the  wagon  gets  here,  several  hours  after  the  fourth  milking. 


192  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

the  cream  is  quite  sour.     Does  sour  cream  test  lower  than  sweet  cream? 
Is  any  butter-fat  lost  due  to   evaporation  in  dry  weather? 

The  test  of  sour  cream  will  be  as  accurate  as  of  sweet  cream,  if 
properly  made,  but  it  is  rather  more  difficult  to  make;  or  rather,  to 
get  the  material  into  condition  to  work  well.  There  is  no  fat  lost 
by  evaporation. 

Cream  That  Won't  Whip. 

When  I  sell  my  cream  from  the  separator  they  say  they  cannot 
whip  it.  Can  you  tell  me  if  there  is  any  ivay  that  I  can  make  the  cream 
whip? 

There  appears  to  be  no  good  reason  for  blaming  the  separator 
for  your  difficulty  with  the  cream.  Possibly  the  cream  may  be  too 
thin,  as  thin  cream  is  sometimes  difficult  to  whip.  There  is  also  the 
possibility  that  the  fat  globules  in  the  cream  may  be  rather  small, 
but  that  will  be  the  fault  of  the  cows,  not  of  the  separator.  Another 
reason  why  the  cream  may  not  whip  well  may  be  that  it  is  used  too 
quickly.  If  the  milk  is  all  right,  the  cream  not  too  thin  and  it  is 
permitted  to  stand  for  12  hours  or  so  there  should  be  no  trouble  with 
it.  Occasionally  when  cream  is  pasteurized  it  will  not  whip  well.  In 
these  cases,  or  any  other  that  may  develop,  the  application  of  lime 
water  to  the  cream  at  the  rate  of  1  gallon  to  60  will  remove  the 
difficulty. 

What  Is  Certified  Milk? 

What  process  has  milk  to  go  through  to  be  called  "certified,"  and 
what  demand  is  there  for  it? 

Certified  milk  is  simply  milk  that  is  produced  and  marketed  under 
prescribed  sanitary  conditions.  The  dairies  are  inspected  periodically 
by  representatives  of  some  medical  society  or  other  organization  to 
see  that  all  regulations  are  observed,  who  certify  that  this  is  done; 
hence  the  name.  Milk  from  other  dairies  is  prohibited  by  law  from 
being  sold  under  the  name  "certified  milk."  Among  the  requirements 
in  its  production  are  that  the  cows  must  be  free  from  tuberculosis 
and  otherwise  perfectly  healthy,  the  stable  to  have  a  concrete  floor 
which  is  washed  out  after  each  milking,  the  milkers  to  have  special 
clothes  for  milking,  etc.  The  milk  is  cooled  and  bottled  immediately 
after  milking,  and  kept  at  a  low  temperature  until  it  reaches  the 
consumer,  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  dirt  of  any  kind  or  the  develop- 
ment of  the  few  bacteria  that  must  gain  entrance  before  it  is  bottled. 
To  produce  such  milk  requires  much  expensive  apparatus  and  much 
more  labor  than  to  produce  ordinary  milk,  and  as  a  result  it  sells  for 
a  much  higher  price,  both  to  distributer  and  consumer,  so  that  the 
market  for  it  is  rather  limited. 

Jersey  Shorthorn  Cross. 

//  I  cross  Registered  Shorthorns  with  a  Jersey  bull,  zvhat  dairying 
value  will  the  progeny  have? 

This  makes  an  excellent  cross.  Even  beef-strain  Shorthorns  have 
lots   of   milking  power   if   it   is   developed  and   the  Jersey  cross  will 


Live  Stock  and  Dairy  193 

bring  it  out  in  the  progeny.  The  cows  have  excellent  milking  qualities 
and  give  very  rich  milk.  They  also  have  a  big  frame  and  fine  con- 
stitution. About  the  finest  cows  in  Humboldt  county  were  of  this 
cross  although  Jersey  bulls  have  been  used  so  long  that  the  Shorthorn 
blood  is  almost  eliminated.  The  first  "improved"  cattle  in  California 
and  the  first  cross  made  for  dairy  purposes  was  Jersey  bulls  upon 
grade  Shorthorn  cows.  Later  the  Holstein  Friesians  became  popular 
and  they  and  their  grades  are  now  most  abundant. 

A  Free  Martin. 

/  have  a  Jersey  cow  who  has  just  had  twin  calves,  a  heifer  and  a 
bull.  The  heifer  was  born  about  five  minutes  before  the  bull  and  seems 
to  be  the  stronger.  My  neighbors  tell  me  to  fatten  both  for  the  butcher, 
for  they  say  the  heifer  zvill  be  barren.  The  mother  is  a  young  cow,  as 
this  is  her  second  calf.  Kindly  inform  if  this  is  one  of  nature's  laivs 
or  if  there  is  a  possibility  of  the  heifer  turning  out  all  right? 

The  probability  is  that  it  will  be  better  to  veal  the  heifer  than 
to  raise  her,  as  most  heifer  calves  twinned  with  a  bull  are  free  martins, 
or  animals  of  mixed  sex  and  no  good  for  breeding  purposes  or  for 
profitable  milk  production.  If  the  bull  is  a  good  animal,  he  probably 
will  be  all  right,  as  this  twinning  does  not  seem  to  affect  a  bull  calf, 
though  it  does  the  heifer.  It  does  not  always  happen  that  the  heifer 
is  worthless  for  breeding,  but  the  probability  is  so  great  that  you 
had  better  have  her  killed  and  be  done  with  it. 

What  Is  a  "Grade"? 

Does  the  term  "grade"  mean  an  animal  whose  sire  is  a  thorough- 
bred and  whose  dam  is  a  scrub,  or  just  one  who  is  selected  from  others 
because  of  her  good  points  or  those  of  her  mother? 

Roughly  speaking,  a  grade  animal  is  one  having  more  or  less 
pure-bred  blood,  but  not  enough,  or  otherwise  too  irregular,  for  regis- 
try under  the  rules  of  the  association  of  the  breed  to  which  it  has 
affiliation.  It  does  not  refer  to  selection  without  use  of  a  pure-blood 
sire  at  some  point  in  the  ancestry,  but  this  is  not  a  distinction  of 
much  moment,  for  it  is  hard  to  find  animals  which  have  not  borrowed 
something  from  some  cross  with  pure  blood,  though  remote.  The 
terms  high  and  low  grade  are  sometimes  used  to  signify  amount  of 
pure  blood  recognizable  by  form  and  other  characters  or  remembered 
by  owners  or  their  neighbors.  Generally  speaking,  a  grade  is  any- 
thing not  entitled  to  registry,  though  ordinarily  it  refers  to  the  off- 
spring of  a  pure-bred  sire  and  a  cow  of  another  or  of  no  breed. 
The  offspring  of  a  pure-bred  cow  and  a  scrub  bull  would  also  be 
a  grade. 

Breeding   a   Young   Mare, 

/  have  a  beautiful  colt  22  months  old  that  will  weigh  1200  or  1300 
pounds:  very  compactly  built,  and  has  extra  health,  life  and  vigor.  I 
zvant  this  colt  for  a  brood-mare.  Would  you  advise  breeding  at  two  or 
three  years  old? 


194  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Authorities  agree  at  placing  the  age  from  two  to  three  years, 
according  to  the  development  of  the  animal  and  other  circum- 
stances. 

"To  Breed  in  the  Purple." 

What  is  meant  by  breeding  a  sozv  in  the  purple?  I  have  seen  this 
statement  used  many  times  by  breeders  zvho  advertised  "sows  safe  in 
pig  bred  in  the  purple." 

To  be  "bred  in  the  purple"  means  to  be  of  royal  or  princely 
parentage.  It  originally  was  used  in  reference  to  the  nobility  of 
Europe,  as  purple  was  the  insignia  of  royal  blood,  due  to  the  fact 
that  purple  was  the  rarest  and  most  costly  color  and  only  the  rich 
and  noble  could  buy  it.  When  used  in  referring  to  live  stock,  it 
signifies  that  the  animal  in  question  has  a  long  line  of  blooded 
ancestry. 

Cows    for    Hill    Country. 

What  breed  of  dairy  cozvs  do  you  think  zvould  be  preferable  to  keep 
for  butter,  at  an  altitude  of  about  1800  feet,  in  Nevada  county — Jerseys, 
Guernseys  or  Ayrshires?  I  do  not  mean  to  have  them  to  rustle  for 
their  ozvn  living,  but  to  feed  them  zvcll,  house  and  care  for  them  in  all 
zveather,  particularly  in  stormy  zveather. 

The  best  breed  for  a  man  is  the  one  he  likes  best,  providing 
it  has  been  bred  for  the  purposes  he  desires  to  attain.  All  the 
breeds  you  mention  are   suited  to  the   scheme   you  outline. 

Foothill  Dairying. 

Is  there  any  risk  to  run  in  taking  cozvs  to  an  altitude  of  2000 
from  a   much  lozver  one? 

There  is  no  quarrel  between  a  cow  and  a  mountain.  Ever 
since  the  settlement  of  the  State  cows  have  been  driven  directly 
from  the  valley  up  to  the  mountain  meadow  pastures,  both  for 
butter  and  for  beef-making,  in  the  summer  time.  The  foothill 
elevation  you  mention  is  only  a  starting  to  elevations  of  6000  feet 
and  more  to  which  cattle  are  driven  every  season. 

Bad-Tempered    Jerseys. 

Jersey  bulls  are  apt  to  become  vicious  after  a  time;  is  it  so  to  the 
same  extent  zvith  bulls  of  the  other  named  breeds? 

The  Jersey  bull  is  conceded  to  be  crosser  and  more  dangerous 
than  other  bulls,  but  no  bull  should  ever  be  allowed  to  have  a 
chance  at  a  man.  Never  consider  a  bull  gentle  and  you  will  be 
safe    with    him. 

Breeding  in  Line. 

Is  it  right  and  proper  to  breed  a  pedigreed  registered  bull  to  his 
daughter,  zjuho  is  the  offspring  of  a  grade  cozv?  If  it  is  not  right,  explain 
zvhy.     If  it  can  be  done,  zvill  the  offspring  be  physically  perfect  and  an 


Live  Stock  and  Dairy  195 

improvement,  or  mill  it  have  poorer  qualities  than  its  sire  and  mother? 
If  this  inbreeding  can  be  done  successfully,  how  long  can  it  be  carried 
on,  or,  in  other  zvords,  hozu  long  could  o>ic  bull  be  bred  back  into  his 
ozvn  offspring:''    Can  a  herd  be  perfected  in  this  wayf 

It  is  right  and  proper  to  breed  a  registered  sire  to  his  daughter, 
who  is  the  offspring  of  a  grade  cow.  The  first  cross  is  all  right 
and  the  offspring  ought  to  be  physically  perfect.  This  is  a  first 
step  in  what  we  call  line  breeding,  but  in  line  breeding  proper, 
both  animals  must  be  pure  bloods  and  registered,  having  ancestors 
on  both  sides  which  have  a  long  line  of  good  individuals  with 
strong  constitutions  and  true  to  type.  To  do  this,  one  must  have 
a  perfect  ideal  in  mind.  This  line  breeding  is  what  has  developed 
the  breeds  today  up  to  the  high  standard  of  perfection.  Breeding 
sire  to  daughter,  if  followed  along  these  lines,  will  be  all  right; 
at  least,  it  was  so  in  the  case  of  Amos  Cruickshank,  the  great 
shorthorn  breeder.  You  cannot  successfully  breed  back  on  the 
daughter's  offspring,  but  if  you  use  a  straight  out-cross  on  the 
daughter's  offspring  you  can  again  use  this  sire  on  her  produce  with 
marked  success.  In  the  case  of  a  grade  cow  and  registered  sire, 
there  are  two  things  which  will  make  you  either  lose  or  win  with 
one  cross,  and  that  is  regarding  the  breeding  of  your  sire.  If  he 
is  just  an  ordinary-bred  fellow  it  will  be  a  hit-and-miss  game,  but 
if  he  is  from  a  long  line  of  good  ancestors  on  his  dam's  side,  you 
can  very  materially  improve  the  herd,  because  always  keep  in  mind 
the  female  produce  from  the  sire's  dam  will  grow  with  age  toward 
the  sire's  dam.  So  if  your  first  cross  from  your  first  sire  is  all 
right,  use  a  straight  out-cross  bull,  but  be  sure  he  is  what  he  ought 
to  be,  and  then  you  can  use  your  old  bull  back  on  his  heifers.  Of 
course,  a  man  practicing  this  breeding  ought  to  be  a  thorough 
stockman  and  a  first-class  judge  of  live  stock. — W.  M.  Carruthers. 

Whitewashes   for   Stock   Buildings. 

/  desire  whitezvash  recipes  zvhich  have  given  durable  results  on  out- 
buildings. 

It  is  so  desirable  to  make  outbuildings  neat  and  clean,  and  so 
important  to  keep  trees  from  sunburning,  etc.,  that  a  durable  white- 
wash as  cheaply  and  easily  made  as  possible  is  very  important. 
The  following  are  commended:  No.  1 — To  half  a  bucketful  of  un- 
slaked lime  add  2  handfuls  of  common  salt,  and  soft  soap  at  the 
rate  of  1  pound  to  15  gallons  of  the  wash.  Slake  slowly,  stirring 
all  the  time.  This  quantity  makes  2  bucketfuls  of  very  adhesive 
wash,  which  is  not  affected  by  rain.  No.  2 — Whitewash  requires 
some  kind  of  grease  in  it  to  make  it  most  durable.  Any  kind  of 
grease,  even  though  it  be  old  and  partly  spoiled,  will  answer  all 
right,  though  tallow  is  best.  The  grease  imparts  to  the  whitewash 
an  oil  property  the  same  as  in  good  paint.  Tallow  will  stay  right 
on  the  job  for  years,  and  the  cheapest  of  it  will  do.  In  order  to 
prepare  this  grease  and  get  it  properly  incorporated  into  the  white- 


196  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

wash,  it  is  necessary  to  put  the  grease  in  a  vessel  on  the  stove, 
and  Ijoil  it  into  a  part  of  the  whitewash  so  as  to  emulsify  it  and 
get  it  into  such  condition  that  it  can  be  properly  incorporated  with 
the  whitewash  mixture.  No.  3 — For  every  barrel  of  fresh  lime, 
add  16  pounds  of  tallow,  16  pounds  of  salt  and  4  pounds  of  glue, 
dissolved.  Mix  all  together  and  slack;  keep  covered,  and  let  stand 
a  few  days  before  using.  Add  water  to  bring  the  right  consistency 
to  spread  readily.  For  nice  inside  work  strain  it.  When  less  than 
a  barrel  of  lime  is  used,  the  quality  of  the  wash  does  not  seem  so 
good.      It   is   better   to   apply   hot,   but   it   does   well   cold. 

Government    Whitewash. 

What  is  the  government  recipe  for  whitezvashf 

"Take  a  half  bushel  of  well-burned,  unslaked  lime,  slake  it 
with  boiling  water,  cover  during  the  process  to  keep  in  steam, 
strain  the  liquid  through  a  fine  sieve  or  strainer,  and  add  to  it  7 
pounds  of  salt,  previously  dissolved  in  warm  water;  3  pounds  of 
ground  rice  boiled  to  a  thin  paste  and  stirred  in  while  hot;  half 
a  pound  of  Spanish  whiting  and  1  pound  of  glue,  previously  dis- 
solved by  soaking  in  cold  water,  and  then  hanging  over  in  a  small 
pot  hung  in  a  larger  one  filled  with  water.  Add  5  gallons  of  hot 
water  to  the  mixture,  stir  well  and  let  it  stand  for  a  few  days, 
covered  from  dirt.  It  should  be  applied  hot,  for  which  purpose  it  can  be 
kept  in  a  portable  furnace.  A  pint  of  this  mixture,  if  properly 
applied,  will  cover  a  square  yard." 

Whitewash  for  Spray  Pump. 

Can  you  give  a  recipe  for  a  durable  whiteivash  zvhich  can  be  pre- 
pared simply  and  in  large  quantities^  The  whitewash  will  be  applied 
with  a  spray  pump. 

To  25  pounds  of  lime,  whole,  slacking  with  6  gallons  of  water, 
add  6  pounds  of  common  salt  and  lyi  pounds  of  brown  sugar. 
Stir  and  mix  well  and  allow  to  cool.  When  cool  stir  in  1  ounce 
of  ultramarine  blue.  Then  add  2  gallons  of  water,  and  sprinkle 
and  stir  in  2  pounds  of  Portland  cement.  If  two  coats  are  to  be 
applied,  add  1  more  gallon  of  water.  Strain  for  work  on  smooth 
surface. 

Buttermilk   Paint. 

Hoiv  is  paint  made  with  buttermilk  for  farm  buildings? 

One  gallon  buttermilk,  3  pounds  of  Portland  cement,  and  suf- 
ficient coloring  matter  to  give  the  desired  shade.  Apply  as  soon 
as  made,  and  stir  a  great  deal  while  being  applied.  It  is  said  to 
dry  in  about  6  hours  and  to  be  a  good  preservative  for  fences, 
barns   and  other  outbuildings. 


Live  Stock  and  Dairy  197 

Trespassing    Live    Stock. 

Is  there  a  feuee  laze  in  this  Statef  In  other  zi.'Prds.  do  I  have  to 
fence  against  my  neighbors'  stock,  or  does  the  lazv  require  him  to  care 
for  his  stock  and  keep  it  off  my  property? 

The  old  "no-fcncc  law"  which  was  enacted  during  the  troubles 
between  wheat  growers  and  stock  rangers  has  been  put  out  of 
commission  by  more  recent  legislation.  The  trespassing  live  stock 
is  liable  for  damage,  but  just  how  to  proceed  to  protect  yourself 
you  should  learn  from  a  local  lawyer  who  knows  statutes  and  your 
county   ordinances  also. 

Rat-Proof  Granary. 

How  can   I   make  a   rat-proof  granary  for  alfalfa    meal  and   barley? 

Omit  all  boarding  of  the  sides  below  the  floor  level  and  place 
a  heavy  inverted  pan,  milk  pan,  between  the  top  of  each  of  the 
supporting  posts  and  the  floor  beams.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
diagonal  bracing  of  the  underpinning  or  posts  does  not  allow  a 
rat  to  secure  a  foot  hold  near  enough  the  floor  to  permit  of  gnawing 
through. 

Concrete  Stable  Floor. 

Is  a  concrete  Hoar  good  for  a  Iiorse  stable^ 

Concrete  floors  are  satisfactorily  used  for  horse  stables,  pro- 
vided the  floor  is  ribbed  or  otherwise  roughened  in  a  way  to  reduce 
the  danger  of  slipping.  Some  stablemen  have  stall  floors  made  that 
way.  Some  use  a  wooden  grating  over  the  concrete  in  places  where 
the  horses  have  to  stand  for  any  length  of  time.  Others  soften  the 
standing  by  free  use  of  bedding. 

Silo-Heating  Not  Dangerous. 

Is  there  any  danger  of  a  barn  burning  front  spontaneous  combustion 
due  to  a  silo  being  built  in  the  ham? 

There  is  no  danger  of  the  silo  overheating  and  setting  fire  to 
a  barn.  When  the  ensilage  is  curing,  it  often  gets  warm,  but  never 
anywhere  near  the  point  of  combustion. 

To  Make  Shingles  Durable. 

What  is  the  best  material  ivith  ivliich  to  coat  the  shingles  on  my 
barn  roof? 

The  best  coating  is  a  wood  preservative,  the  principal  ingredient 
of  which  is  creosote.  There  are  several  reliable  brands  of  preserva- 
tives and  stains  that  may  be  had  at  a  cost  of  about  half  that  of 
paint.  We  must  remark  also  the  natural  durability  of  redwood 
shingles  in  this  climate  if  the  roof  has  a  good  pitch.  We  reshingled 
our  house  roof  after  20  years  of  use  and  found  the  shingles  so 
sound  that  we  turned  them  and  shingled  the  sides  and  roof  of 
a  shed  with  them,  where  they  promise  to  be  good  for  another  score 
of  years. 


198  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Best   Breed   of   Hogs. 

What  is  the  best  breed  of  hogs  for  pen  feeding,  shutting  them  up 
in  small  pens  from  the  time  they  are  little  pigs  and  feeding  them  mostly 
on  skim  milk  and  slops? 

There  is  no  best  breed.  It  is  a  matter  of  personal  preference. 
Any  of  the  breeds  are  all  right  to  pen  up  and  feed.  The  principal 
thing  is  to  see  that  the  hogs  are  all  pure  bred  and  have  not  been 
crossed  too  often  to  cause  deterioration.  Choose  one  breed  of  hogs 
and  keep  them  as  pure  as  possible  and  you  will  have  no  trouble  in 
raising  them.  All  the  breeds  are  good;  but  some  are  fancied  more 
than  others.  Dark-colored  hogs  are  preferred  in  California  because 
less   liable   to   sunburn. 


PART  VI.    FEEDING  FARM 
ANIMALS 


Feed  for  Plow-Horses. 

While  doing  heavy  plozving,  hoiv  many  pounds  of  rolled  barley  per 
day  should  I  feed  to  keep  1300-pound  horses  in  good  condition f  If  I 
feed  part  oat  hay  and  part  alfalfa  hay,  together  zvifh  rolled  barley,  what 
ration  would   be  ample? 

A  ration  used  by  the  California  Experiment  Station  was  12 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay,  11  pounds  of  wheat  hay  and  7  pounds  of 
crushed  barley  for  1000  pounds  of  horse  at  hard  work.  The  larger 
the  horse  the  less  food  for  the  amount  of  work  he  does  in  propor- 
tion to  his  size,  so  multiplying  these  figures  by  1.2  would  bring  a 
person  somewhere  near  the  ration  for  a  1300-pound  horse,  and_  an 
approximation  is  as  close  as  one  can  come  to  any  general  ration. 
Probably  more  alfalfa  and  less  of  the  other  feeds  could  well  be 
given,  since  many  farmers  are  succeeding  in  feeding  alfalfa  ex- 
clusively. 

Vetch  for  Horses. 

Does  vetch  make  good  feed  for  horses f  Will  vetch  produce  a  heavier 
crop  than  grain F  When  is  the  best  time  to  sotv  vetch  for  hay,  and  what 
is  the  best  variety? 

Vetch  makes  excellent  stock  feed  whether  used  as  hay  or  as 
pasturage.  Vetch  falls  to  the  ground  so  badly  that  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  cut  hay  from  it  unless  some  grain  is  planted  to  hold  it  up. 
Oats  make  an  excellent  hold-up  crop  and  is  more  generally  used. 
A  half  a  bushel  of  vetch  seed  is  mixed  with  a  bushel  of  oats  and 
this  is  enough  to  plant  an  acre.  Some  growers,  however,  prefer  a 
bushel  of  vetch  as  that  makes  the  stand  much  heavier. 

Sorghum   Feeding. 

Can  I  allow  milk  cows  to  pasture  on  growing  Kaffir  and  Egyptian 
corn  during  the  summer?     Which  one  is  the  best  for  pasture  and  milk? 

There  is  no  difference  between  Kaffir  corn  and  Egyptian  corn 
so  far  as  feeding  goes.  They  are  both  sorghums.  There  is  a 
danger  in  pasturing  on  young  sorghums,  because  stock  is  often 
killed  from  overeating  it,  and  they  are  quite  apt  to  do  this  when 
they  come  upon  it  from  dry  feed.  If  you  cut  and  wilt  the  young 
sorghum,  or  if  it  is  fed  sparingly  with  hay,  etc.,  it  becomes  innocent 
of  injury.  After  the  sorghum  has  obtained  considerable  growth,  it 
also  loses  its  dangerous  character. 


200  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Salting  Hay. 

What  kind  of  salt  is  used  for  salting  hay,  how  much  to  use  and  how 
to   apply   it? 

Any  good  commercial  salt  such  as  is  used  for  pork  or  beef 
packing  is  satisfactory  for  salting  hay.  A  good  handful  to  the  ton, 
scattering  it  as  the  hay  is  stocked  is  as  good  a  formula  as  can  be 
had. 

Stover. 

What  is  stoverf    How  is  it  cut  and  handled? 

Stover  is  corn  fodder  after  the  ears  are  taken  ofif.  The  best 
time  to  cut  the  corn  for  stover  is  immediately  after  the  kernel 
becomes  dented  and  the  leaves  or  blades  commence  to  dry.  Im- 
mediately after  the  ears  are  taken  off,  the  stalks  should  be  cut  and 
stacked.  The  size  of  the  shock  depends  upon  the  climate.  If  it 
is  a  foggly  climate  and  stalks  are  green,  it  is  better  to  make  a 
smaller  shock,  but  in  the  interior  valley  where  the  weather  is  warm 
it  is  best  to  make  large  shocks,  so  that  the  stacks  will  not  dry  up 
very  rapidly. 

Feed  for  Cows. 

What  shall  I  feed  cows  zvhen  they  are  fresh  and  when  they  are  dry? 

When  they  commence  to  freshen,  give  some  green  feed,  such  as 
alfalfa  or  corn;  if  possible,  also  give,  say,  two  or  three  pounds  of 
barley  or  bran,  and  gradually  increase  this  for  two  or  three  weeks 
until  six  or  seven  pounds  of  bran  or  barley  is  being  fed.  Also  give 
a  small  amount  of  hay.  Bran  may  be  rather  expensive  feeding  and 
a  substitute  is  being  used.  Take  four  parts  of  barley  to  one  of  bran 
and  mix.  With  barley  at  its  low  price,  this  makes  rather  inexpensive 
feeding.  Another  substitute  is  to  take  the  chopped  alfalfa  hay  and 
barley.  These  are  mixed  thoroughly  together  and  moistened.  After 
the  cow  freshens  and  gives  her  full  flow  of  milk,  let  her  eat  all  the 
alfalfa  hay  she  wants.  A  good  ration  is  about  15  to  20  pounds  af 
hay,  6  or  7  pounds  of  barley  or  bran  and  about  10  pounds  of  roots 
such  as  beets  or  mangels.  When  the  cow  is  dry,  pasture  is  the  best 
food,  supplemented  with  some  green  food. 

Sorghum  Silage. 

Will  Egyptian  corn  make  good  ensilage  and  at  zvliat  time  should  it 
be  cut  to  make  the  best  feed  for  dairy  cows? 

Sorghum  makes  good  silage.  It  must  be  cut  while  surely  juicy 
enough,  for  it  is  a  little  more  apt  to  dry  out  than  Indian  corn. 

Barley  for   Hay   Feeding. 

Should  the  barley  for  hog  feeding  be  rolled,  ground  or  fed  whole, 
dry  or  wet?  Also,  how  much  should  be  fed  and  how  often  to  get  best 
results  ? 


Feeding  Farm  Animals  201 

To  obtain  the  best  results,  the  barley  should  be  ground  into 
a  meal  (not  too  fine)  and  have  the  hulls  screened  or  floated  out. 
This  is  best  fed  when  made  into  a  thick  slop.  Some  good  feeders 
believe  in  letting  it  stand  until  fermentation  sets  up,  that  is,  gets 
a  little  sour.  We  prefer  a  sweet  to  a  sour  feed.  However,  hogs 
will  do  well  on  either,  provided  there  is  no  change  from  sour  to 
sweet.  The  change  is  the  bad  part.  Hogs  should  be  fed  just  the 
amount  that  they  will  clean  up  well,  and  no  more.  A  hog  should 
always  be  ready  for  his  feed  at  feeding  time.  We  would  not  feed 
oftener  than  twice  a  day:  night  and  morning. — Chas.  Goodman. 

Sugar  Beets  and  Silage. 

Will  sugar  beets  keep  in  a  silo  and  hozv  sugar  beets  rank  as  a  hog 
feed? 

Sugar  beets  would  probably  keep  all  right  if  stored  in  a  silo 
just  as  they  might  if  kept  in  any  other  receptacle,  but  it  is  not  necessary 
to  store  beets  for  stock-feeding  in  this  State.  They  can  be  taken  from 
the  field,  or  from  piles  made  under  open  sheds  in  which  the  beets  may 
be  put  because  more  convenient  for  feeding  than  to  take  them  from 
the  field  in  the  rainy  season.  Beets  put  whole  into  a  silo  would  not 
make  silage.  For  that  purpose  they  would  need  to  be  reduced  to  a  pulp, 
but  there  is  no  object  in  going  to  the  expense  of  that  operation  where 
beets  will  keep  so  well  in  their  natural  condition  and  where  there  is 
no  hard  freezing  to  injure  them.  Beet  pulp  silage  is  made  from  beets 
which  are  put  through  a  pulping  process  for  the  purpose  of  extraction 
of  the  sugar  and,  therefore,  best  pulp  silage  is  only  made  in  connection 
with  beet-sugar  factories  and  is  a  by-product  thereof  which  is  proving 
of  large  value  for  feeding  purposes. 

Feeding  Value  of  Spelt. 

What  is  the  food  value  of  spelt?  It  is  a  Russian  variety  of  wheat, 
and  yet,  I  am  informed,  it  has  about  the  same  value  as  a  stock  food 
that  barley  has. 

We  have  no  analysis  of  spelt  at  hand.  It  is  presumably  like  that 
of  barley,  as  you  suggest,  because  the  spelt  has  an  adhering  chaff 
as  barley  has.  This  fact  makes  it  better  for  feeding  than  wheat,  not 
in  nutritive  content,  but  because  the  chaff  tends  to  distribute  the 
starchy  material,  making  it  more  easily  digestible;  just  as  barley  and 
oats  are  better  than  ordinary  wheat  for  stock  feeding. 

Concentrates  and  Corn  Stalks. 

Is  it  necessary  to  feed  mulch  cozvs  any  hay  or  concentrated  feed  in 
addition  to  green  corn  stalks? 

It  is  necessary.  Green  corn  is  an  excellent  thing  for  milch  cows, 
but  it  is  a  very  unbalanced  ration  and  needs  alfalfa  or  something  else 
to  balance  it  up.  Green  corn,  for  example,  contains  only  about  one 
per  cent  of  digestible  protein  and  11.5  per  cent  of  digestible  carbo- 


202  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

hydrates  and  0.4  per  cent  fat,  or  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about  1  to  12^. 
A  proper  ration  would  be  about  1  to  6  or  7,  or  less.  To  balance  this 
up  alfalfa  can  be  fed  better  than  anything  else  in  California,  for  that 
is  very  rich  in  protein  and  the  cheapest  supply  of  protein  that  there 
is.  If  you  give  the  cows  a  good  supply  of  alfalfa  hay  with  the  green 
corn,  you  will  have  an  ideal  combination. 

Dry   Sorghum  Fodder. 

Is  Egyptian  corn  fodder  good  for  cozvs?  I  have  been  told  it  would 
dry  up  the  milk.  I  have  several  acres  and  zvould  like  to  feed  it  if  it 
is  not  harmful. 

Dry  sorghum  fodder  is  counted  about  the  poorest  roughage  that 
one  would  think  of  harvesting.  It  is  much  less  valuable  than  Indian 
corn  fodder.  Egyptian  corn  is  one  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums 
which  are  valuable  both  for  grain  or  for  green  feeding.  We  never 
heard  of  direct  milk-drying  effect,  though  such  a  result  might  be 
expected  from  feeding  such  innutritive  material,  which  is  also  difficult 
of  digestion.  If  fed  for  roughness  it  should  be  in  connection  with 
concentrated  foods  like  bran  or  oil  meal  or  with  green  alfalfa.  No 
cow  can  give  much  milk  when  the  feed  is  hardly  nutritive  enough  to 
keep  her  alive. 

There  seems  to  be,  however,  much  difference  in  the  dry  fodders 
from  different  varieties  of  sorghum.  One  grower  writes:  "Kaffir  corn 
is  the  only  variety  within  our  knowledge  of  which  the  fodder  is  of 
much  value.  We  consider  the  fodder  much  more  preferable  than  that 
of  the  ordinary  Indian  corn,  and  our  stock  eat  it  much  more  readily 
than  the  sweet  sorghum.  However,  it  requires  a  much  longer  season 
in  which  to  ripen  than  does  any  of  the  other  varieties,  for  which 
reason  it  is  less  desirable  to  plant  in  midsummer." 

Steers  on  Alfalfa. 

How  much  alfalfa  hay  xvill  a  two  or  three-year-old  steer  eat  per 
day,  and  about  what  is  the  gain  in  weight  per  day? 

A  steer  will  clean  up  about  33  pounds  per  day.  Steers  will  make 
about  VA  pounds  gain  in  weight  per  day. 

Concentrates  with  Alfalfa. 

/  have  a  good  supply  of  alfalfa  hay  and  have  been  feeding  this  as 
a  straight  feed  for  my  dairy  cows.  They  are  not,  however,  doing  as  well 
as  they  should  and  I  am  looking  for  some  good  feed  to  go  with  it. 

You  could  probably  get  better  returns  by  feeding  about  a  pound 
of  cocoanut  meal  and  three  of  dried  beet  pulp  than  by  any  other 
combination  of  concentrates  with  straight  alfalfa.  If  you  are  pro- 
ducing market  milk  or  butter  prices  justify  it,  more  concentrates  could 
profitably  be  fed.  It  is  an  expensive  proposition  to  build  up  a  properly 
balanced  ration  with  alfalfa  and  concentrates  alone,  and  unless  mar- 
ket mrlk  is  being  sold,  it  usually  does  not  pay.     The   cheapest  way 


Feeding  Farm  Animals  203 

to  provide  a  balanced  ration  is  not  by  concentrates,  but  by  wheat  or 
other  grain  straw,  and  let  the  cows  eat  all  they  care  for.  This  is 
very  cheap  and  helps  to  balance  a  ration  with  green  or  dry  alfalfa 
hay,  is  usually  cheap,  and  is  iine  for  cows.  Both  are  much  less  ex- 
pensive  than  concentrates. 

Chopping  Hay  for  Horses. 

What  sai'iiig  )iuiy  be  iiiadc  by  cliot^ping  all  oat  liay  ivlicn  fed  to 
horses? 

There  is  no  particular  saving  in  chopping  liay  unless  the  horses 
are  worked  very  hard  and  for  very  long  hours,  as  is  often  the  case 
with  express  horses  in  the  cities,  or  unless  the  power  for  cutting  is 
very  cheap  and  feed  high.  The  idea  is  that,  except  in  unusual  cases 
as  above  mentioned,  the  horses  can  do  their  own  grinding  cheaper 
than  it  can  be  done  by  power.  Somewhat  less  hay  is  wasted  when 
fed  cut  than  when  fed  long,  but  if  they  are  not  fed  too  much  long 
hay  they  will  waste  very  little. 

Grain  for  Horses. 

What  is  the  best  formula  for  feeding  njork  horses  zvith  oat  hay, 
alfalfa,  barley  (crushed)  and  corn  as  rations? 

Feed  one-half  oat  hay  and  one-half  alfalfa  hay,  about  1  to  1^ 
pounds  per  day  for  each  100  pounds  live  weight  of  the  horse.  Add 
to  this  from  ^  to  1  pound  of  rolled  barley  or  corn  for  each  100 
pounds  live  weight.  If  the  corn  is  on  the  cob,  four-fifths  of  its  weight 
is  corn;  that  is  to  say,  5  pounds  of  corn  on  the  cob  has  4  pounds 
of  grain. 

Feeding  Cut  Alfalfa  Hay. 

Would  alfalfa  hay,  cut,  say,  from  one-half  to  three  inches  in  length 
be  better  than  whole  hay  for  hogs,  cattle  and  horses,  and  if  it  is  better, 
should  it  be  fed  wet  or  dry? 

Cattle  and  horses  do  much  better  when  fed  chopped  alfalfa  hay 
than  when  fed  whole  hay.  They  can  eat  the  required  amount  in  much 
less  time  and  with  less  exertion.  For  cattle  and  horses  the  hay  should 
be  cut  about  one  inch  long  and  fed  dry.  There  is  no  advantage  in 
chopping  alfalfa  hay  for  hogs  unless  it  is  mixed  with  ground  grain  and 
made  into  slop. — L.  P.  Denny. 

Storing  Cut  Alfalfa  Hay. 

We  are  planning  on  cutting  our  next  season's  crop  of  alfalfa  zvith 
a  feed  cutter  and  storing  it  in  a  barn  for  winter  feeding. 

The  hay  must,  of  course,  be  thoroughly  cured,  because  of  the  great 
danger  of  heating  in  a  tight  mass.  A.  Balfour  says:  "I  have  been 
cutting  alfalfa  into  a  barn  for  two  seasons.  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  have  the  sides  and  floor  tight,  and  it  is  easier  to  feed  it  if  it  is  in 
a  loft.     The  hay  is  best  stacked  first,  and  must  be  thoroughly  cured." 


204  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Alfalfa  Grinding. 

IS  the  curing  of  alfalfa  for  grinding  different  from  ordinary;  has  it 
to  be  chopped  before  grinding,  and  what  is  the  cost  of  grinding? 

Alfalfa  hay  should  be  cut  when  the  very  first  blossoms  commence 
to  appear.  At  this  point  the  plant  contains  the  greatest  amount  of 
protein ;  from  that  time  on  until  seed  time,  the  protein  diminishes  and  fiber 
increases.  To  make  meal,  hay  should  be  well  cured,  have  gone  through 
the  sweat,  and  should  be  dry,  or  as  near  dry  as  possible.  It  mills 
easier  when  dry  and  makes  a  finer  product.  It  should  be  cured  so  as 
to  retain  the  green  color.  To  grind  it,  it  is  not  necessary  to  cut  it 
before  grinding,  it  mills  better  if  ground  just  as  it  comes  from  the 
stack.  The  cost  of  milling  hay  varies  with  the  size  of  the  machine, 
condition  of  hay,  whether  dry  or  damp,  or  whether  tough  or  tender. 
With  larger  plants  of  a  capacity  of  four  to  five  tons  per  hour,  it  costs 
about  45  cents  a  ton  to  put  it  in  the  sack,  exclusive  of  the  cost  of 
sacks;  and  with  smaller,  it  runs  from  that  on  up  to  $1  to  $2  per  ton. 

Feeding  Calves. 

How  soon  can  calves  be  weaned  and  not  hinder  their  growth?  After 
weaning,  what  would  you  advise  to  feed  them? 

After  the  calf  has  once  nursed,  it  should  be  taken  away  from  its 
mother,  but  fed  its  mother's  milk  for  a  few  days,  depending  on  the 
vigor  of  the  calf.  Commence  to  add  skim-milk  after  a  week  or  ten 
days,  adding  a  small  amount  at  first  and  increasing  it  daily  until  the 
calf  is  on  an  entirely  skim-milk  diet.  The  milk  must  be  sweet,  it 
must  be  as  warm  as  its  mother's  milk  and  the  calf  must  not  have  too 
much  of  it.  Four  quarts  at  a  feed  twice  a  day  is  sufficient  for  the 
average  sized  calf  for  the  first  month,  then  increase  it  accordingly. 
Add  a  spoonful  of  ground  flaxseed  to  each  feed  and  teach  the  calf  to 
eat  a  little  grain  as  soon  as  possible.  Ground  barley  is  the  most 
economical  feed  to  balance  a  ration  containing  so  much  skim-milk. 
If  calves  show  a  tendency  to  looseness  of  the  bowels,  feed  less  milk, 
and  when  this  does  not  remedy  the  trouble,  heat  some  skim-milk  to 
boiling  and  when  it  is  cooled  to  a  proper  temperature  feed  this  to  the 
calf.  A  good  grain  ration  to  feed  calves  along  with  skim-milk  is 
ground  barley  with  green  alfalfa  hay.  When  the  milk  is  cut  off,  feed 
barley  and  bran  soaked  with  molasses  water.  Put  a  pint  of  molasses 
in  a  pail  of  water  and  dampen  feed  with  it.  This  amount  will  dampen 
three  bushels  of  feed. — W.  M.  Carruthers. 

Winter  Feed  for  Sheep. 

What  zvould  be  the  best  to  sozv  for  sheep  pasture — barley,  oats,  rye, 
vetch  or  rape? 

Of  the  grains,  rye  is  usually  found  to  be  best  for  quick  winter 
growth,  and  rye  and  vetches  sown  together  are  very  satisfactory,  be- 
cause the  rye  holds  the  vetches  up  so  that  the  whole  growth  can  be 
more  successfully  handled  with  the  mower,  and  if  grown  that  way  and 


Feeding  Farm  Animals  205 

fed  green  in  a  corral,  a  very  large  amount  of  good  feed  can  be  se- 
cured. Sufficient  experiments  have  not  yet  been  made  witli  rape  to 
fully  demonstrate  its  value.  Even  if  it  grew  well,  it  would  be  inferior 
in  nutritive  value  to  vetches  and  rye. 

Balanced  Rations. 

IVhat  is  a  hahuiccd  ration  for  milk  cozi'S  and  brood  soivs? 

When  plenty  of  alfalfa  is  available  many  dairymen  feed  that  alone. 
It  is  better  to  feed  a  little  corn,  grain  hay,  beet  pulp  or  the  beets 
themselves  to  balance  up  the  ration.  Some  of  the  best  concentrates 
to  feed  to  offset  alfalfa  hay  are  ground  barley  and  dried  beet  pulp. 
The  same  thing  can  be  said  about  the  sows.  They  will  consume  about 
10  pounds  of  chopped  alfalfa  per  day  and  all  the  skim-milk  that  is 
likely  to  be  given  them.  Not  more  than  eight  pounds  of  concentrates 
need  be  fed,  of  which  one-fifth  may  be  bran,  the  same  amount,  or  more, 
of  cocoanut  oil  cake,  and  the  rest  corn  or  barley.  With  plenty  of 
skim-milk  and  alfalfa,  but  little  grain  or  other  concentrates  will  be 
needed.     A  few  beets  will  also  go  well  with  alfalfa. 

Pasture  and  Cover  Crop. 

/  am  thinking  of  sowing  burr  clover  ivith  rye  to  be  plozved  under 
in  the  spring.    Is  it  good  policy  to  sow  rye  with  clover^ 

Burr  clover  and  rye  would  be  very  satisfactory  for  sowing,  after 
the  rains,  to  secure  a  winter  growth  for  plowing  under  in  March  or 
April,  or  earlier  if  the  growth  should  be  large  enough  to  warrant. 
Such  a  cover  crop  can  be  pastured  lightly  to  advantage. 

Cutting  Corn  for  Silage. 

What  is  the  best  time  to  cut  corn  for  the  silo?  What  length  is  it 
cut?     Is  water  put  on  it  zvhcn  it  is  put  in  the  silo? 

The  best  time  to  cut  corn  for  the  silo  is  just  as  the  kernels  are 
beginning  to  glaze.  It  is  cut  with  a  proper  ensilage  cutter  into  half 
or  three-quarter  inch  lengths.  No  water  is  used,  unless  the  corn 
should  be  unusually  dry,  with  shriveled  leaves;  in  that  case,  the  use 
of  water  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  moisture  in  the  stalks  and  leaves 
is  desirable. 

Fall  and  Winter  Pasturage. 

What  do  you  advise  for  planting  in  the  fall  for  winter  pasture  in 
the  Sacramento  valley?    Are  Held  peas  suitable? 

The  common  California  field  pea,  called  Niles  pea,  the  Canadian 
pea,  the  common  vetch  (which  is  sometimes  called  the  Oregon 
vetch  because  the  seed  is  largely  grown  in  that  State)  are  all  suit- 
able for  fall  planting  and  winter  growth  because  they  are  not  in- 
jured by  ordinary  valley  frosts.  Aside  from  legumes,  you  can  get 
winter   feed    from    fall-sown    rye,    Essex   rape   or   kale. 


206  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Summer  Pasture  for  Hogs. 

/  want  to  pasture  hogs  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley  this  spring  and 
summer.  Have  water  for  irrigation,  but  will  not  have  time  to  get  alfalfa 
started  suMcient  to  pasture. 

Sorghum  can  be  planted  with  pumpkins  or  some  root  crop 
between  the  rows.  The  root  crop  or  the  pumpkins  could  be  used 
in  the  later  summer,  while  the  sorghums  could  come  between  the 
natural  grasses  of  the  early  spring  and  the  root  crops.  A  strictly 
pasturage  scheme  is  to  sow  wheat  or  barley  and  turn  the  hogs  on 
this,  so  that  they  will  eat  within  certain  prescribed  limits.  In  order 
to  do  this,  the  field  needs  a  shifting  fence,  so  that  the  hogs  can  be 
driven  from  one  section  to  another — never  letting  the  hogs  eat  too 
closely,  as   they  will  kill  off  the   stand. 

Size  of  a  Silo. 

/  am  planning  to  build  a  silo  8  feet  high  and  lo  feet  across.  Will 
ensilage  (corn,  oats)  keep  well  in  a  silo  of  those  dimensions? 

The  silo  you  are  intending  to  build  is  too  shallow,  and  would 
hold  only  a  very  small  amount  of  silage.  There  would  be  several 
inches  loss  of  silage  before  you  could  start  feeding,  and  you  would 
have  to  feed  at  least  two  and  probably  three  inches  oflf  per  day  in 
order  to  keep  the  food  from  spoiling.  Sixty  inches  of  silage  would 
thus  only  last  about  twenty  days.  Also,  the  deeper  a  silo  is,  the 
tighter  the  ensilage  is  packed  and  the  more  will  be  contained  in  a 
cubic  foot.     The  following  table   will   give  suggestions  as   to  dimen- 


sions: 

Diameter. 

Height. 

Capacity. 

Diameter. 

Height. 

Capacity. 

10  feet 

25  feet 

36  tons 

14  feet 

34  feet 

115  tons 

10    " 

28     " 

42     " 

15     " 

34     " 

131     " 

11     " 

29     " 

60    " 

16    " 

35     " 

158     " 

12     " 

32     " 

73     " 

20    " 

35    " 

258    " 

13     " 

33     " 

83    " 

A  cow  can  consume  four  tons  of  silage  in  180  days  and  more 
or  less  as  you  care  to  feed,  so  by  figuring  out  how  long  you  will 
probably  feed,  you  can  see  the  size  of  silo  to  build  at  once. 

Soiling  Crops  in  California. 

What  are  the  dates  for  planting  crops  to  be  used  for  soiling  in  your 
State? 

We  are  using  Indian  corn  and  sorghums  of  various  kinds  for 
soiling  to  a  certain  extent.  There  is  also  some  cutting  ana  carry- 
ing of  alfalfa,  although  most  of  the  alfalfa  is  pastured.  Dates  of 
planting  depend  upon  the  frost-free  period;  sometimes  beginning  in 
April,  and  successive  planting  for  later  growth  as  water  may  be 
available  for  irrigation.  There  are  places  where  one  can  see  stand- 
ing  corn   and   sorghum   untouched   by   frost   as   late   as   December   1. 


Feeding  Farm  Animals  207 

In  other  locations  the  growth  of  these  plants  have  to  be  made 
between  May  and  September.  We  have  also  winter-soiling  prac- 
ticed to  a  small  extent  in  this  State  and  for  that  purpose  rye  and 
barley  sown  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  are  used  to  some 
extent. 

Brewer's  Grains  for  Cows. 

Are  sprouted  barley  grains  that  may  be  had  from  braveries  good  for 
milch  cowsf     Will  it  increase  the  milk,  or  ivill  it  dry  up  the  coivsf 

Professor  Henry,  in  his  standard  work  on  "Feeds  and  Feed- 
ings," says:  "Fresh  brewer's  grains  constitute  one  of  the  best 
feeds  for  the  dairy  cow.  She  is  fond  of  them  and  they  influence 
most  favorably  the  flow  of  milk.  Fed  while  fresh  in  reasonable 
quantities,  supplemented  by  bright  hay  or  corn  fodder  for  dry  feed, 
the  grains  being  kept  in  tight  feed-boxes  which  can  be  kept  clean, 
and  with  other  conditions  favorable  to  the  healthfulness  of  the  cow, 
no  valid  objection  can  be  raised  against  this  form  of  feed.  From 
20  to  30  pounds  of  wet  grains  should  constitute  a  day's  allowance." 

Feeding  Pumpkins. 

What  is  the  proper  way  to  feed  pumpkins  to  coivs?  Some  say  to 
cut  them  in  halves;  while  others  say  they  must  be  chopped  fine  enough 
so  that  the  cows  cannot  choke  on  them.  Some  tell  me  the  seeds  tend 
to  dry  the  cows  up,  and  should  not  be  fed  with  pumpkins. 

Pumpkins  should  be  either  cut  in  halves  or  broken  in  large 
fragments  so  that  the  stock  can  get  a  bite  at  them  or  else  should 
be  chopped  fine,  and  we  could  never  see  the  advantage  of  going  to 
that  trouble.  Cutting  into  medium-sized  pieces  is  dangerous  because 
of  the  temptation  to  swallow  them  whole  and  thus  getting  choked- 
It  is  not  necessary  to  remove  the  seeds. 

Feeding  a  Family  Cow. 

What  shall  I  feed  family  Jersey  cow  in  addition  to  alfalfa  hay  tc 
insure  a  good  supply  of  milk? 

One  of  the  best  things  to  feed  in  addition  to  alfalfa  hay  is  a 
couple  of  quarts  of  middling  or  bran  twice  a  day,  with  which  is 
mixed  a  cup  of  molasses  with  enough  water  to  make  a  nice  paste. 
Dried  beet  pulp  is  exceptionally  good  with  alfalfa,  if  it  is  available, 
this  also  to  be  moistened  before  feeding. 

Rolled  Barley  for  Cows. 

Will  rolled  barley  hurt  milk  cows,  say  tzvo  light  feeds  a  day?  Will 
it  not  do  about  as  much  good  as  the  same  amount  of  bran? 

Certainly  not  and  otherwise  will  be  good  if  not  used  in  excess 
to  encourage  fattening.  Bran  is  a  better  feed  for  milk  because  it 
has  a  higher  protein  content. 


208  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Horse  Beans  and  Pie-melons. 

Would  it  pay  me  to  raise  horse  beans  for  fattening  hogs?  Horse 
beans  do  well.  Would  citrons  do  well  there  without  irrigation,  and 
would  they  be  better  than  stock-beets  for  hog  feed? 

We  do  not  promise  anyone  that  anything  will  pay.  Horse- 
beans  are  good  with  other  feeds  for  hogs.  Theoretically,  they  will 
balance  well  with  pie-melons  and  beets,  and  both  the  latter  will 
produce  well  on  good  land  with  proper  cultivation  in  the  valley  you 
mention.  Theoretically,  also,  we  would  rather  have  beets  than  pie- 
melons.     The  hogs  will  tell  you  the  rest. 

Horse  Beans. 

Arc  "horse  beans"  a  leguminous  crop  and  hoiv  does  their  feeding 
value  for  hogs  compare  to  cowpeas  and  Canadian  Held  peas? 

They  surely  are  legumes,  and  they  resemble  so  closely  in  com- 
position the  other  legumes  which  you  mention  that  their  feeding 
value  would  be  practically  the  same. 

Storing  Stock  Beets. 

What  is  the  best  method  of  storing  stock  beets  and  stock  carrots  in 
this  climate?  We  can  let  them  remain  in  the  ground  and  grow  until 
February  or  March  and  zvould  like  to  preserve  them  for  feeding  as  long 
as  possible. 

Stock  beets  and  carrots  can  be  stored  in  California  without  re- 
course to  covering  with  ground  or  use  of  a  cellar.  They  keep  very 
well  during  the  winter  if  piled  under  cover  in  such  a  way  as  to 
keep  cool   and  dry. 

Kale  for  Cow  Feed. 

What  is  kale  worth  for  cow  feed  as  compared  with  alfalfa,  also  can 
it  be  cut  and  cured  the  same  as  alfalfa  and  what  variety  is  the  best? 

Kale  is  very  similar  to  cabbage  in  growth,  and  for  feeding  pur- 
poses. For  cow  feed  it  would  have  about  three-fourths  the  amount 
of  digestible  nutrients  as  green  alfalfa,  but  would  have  an  added 
value  on  account  of  its  succulency.  It  would  go  especially  well  with 
alfalfa  hay.  The  Jersey  or  Thousand-Headed  kale  is  considered  the 
standard  for  stock  or  poultry  feed.  It  is  always  fed  fresh  and  is 
not  made  into  hay. 

What  Kind  of  Beet  for  Stock? 

Which  would  be  most  valuable  to  plant  on  river-bottom  land  for 
cattle  and  hog  feed,  sugar  beets  or  mangels? 

Grow  a  large  stock  of  beet  by  all  means — either  a  mangel  or  a 
tankard.  Usually  you  will  get  more  weight  than  with  sugar  beets; 
the  cost  of  harvesting  is  far  less,  and  the  nuritive  contents  high 
enough. 


Feeding  Farm  Animals  209 

Keeping  Pumpkins, 

IVhat  is  the  best  ivay  of  storing  pumpkins,  under  ordinary  farm 
conditions,  in  a  climate  such  as  ivc  have  here  in  northern  California?  I 
have  no  facilities  for  cold  storage. 

All  you  have  to  do  in  this  climate  to  keep  pumpkins  is  to  keep 
them  out  of  reach  of  the  stock.  They  do  not  need  storage  of  any 
kind,  but  will  keep  in  good  condition  during  the  late  autumn  and 
winter  months  in  any  open-air  place  where  they  may  be  convenient 
for  feeding  purposes.  In  parts  of  California  where  there  is  hard 
ground  freezing,  protection  must  be  given  by  covering  with  boards 
or  straw  or  any  other  material  available.  We  have  no  need  for  root 
cellars  or  cold  storage,  for  our  winter  temperatures  are  neither  high 
nor  low  enough  to  hurt  them. 

Grape  Pomace  as  Hog  Feed. 

What  is  the  value  of  grape  pomace  as  a  hog  feed? 

It  has  been  sold  for  50  cents  a  ton  as  it  comes  from  the  press 
at  the  winery  and  when  a  person  has  not  got  any  surplus  of  other 
feeds,  it  is  evidently  worth  that  and  then  some.  The  only  way  to 
feed  it  is  to  put  it  up  in  a  big  pile  and  let  the  hogs  take  it  as  they 
want  it.  It  will  help  keep  them  growing  through  the  winter  pro- 
vided they  have  other  feed  with  it  that  might  not  be  sufficient  with- 
out the  pomace. 

Proper  Feeding  of  Young  Pigs, 

If  I  put  two  50-pound  shoats  to  an  acre  of  barley  that  zuill  yield 
10  or  12  sacks  of  grain,  how  many  months  could  they  be  kept  there  to 
advantage,   and  what  gain   could  I   expect  them   to   make  in   that  time? 

If  the  pigs  have  been  properly  fed  and  were  of  good  stock,  they 
should  have  attained  a  weight  of  50  pounds  at  three  or  four  months 
of  age.  Pigs  in  this  condition  would  be  more  likely  to  lose  than 
gain  turned  on  a  dry  barley  field,  even  if  the  yield  were  double  what 
you  state.  Barley  is  an  excellent  fattener  for  mature  hogs,  but  is  a 
poor  food  for  young  growing  pigs.  Young  pigs  should  have  a 
balanced  ration,  which  may  be  defined  as  a  little  of  almost  all  kinds 
of  feed  and  not  all  of  any  one  kind.  We  have  pigs  running  on  a 
barley  field  such  as  you  describe,  and  in  addition  to  the  barley  we 
feed  them  once  a  day  a  slop  composed  of  wheat  middling  and  bran 
in  equal  parts  by  measurement,  to  which  we  add  about  8  per  cent 
tankage,  and  they  seem  to  be  moving  along  nicely.  Without  the 
slop  we  don't  think  they  would  hold  their  own. — Chas.   Goodman. 

Pie-melons  and  Pigs. 

/  have  14  sows  which  ivcre  fed  almost  entirely  on  pie-melons  and 
milk,  not  much  of  the  latter.  Out  of  the  14,  only  j  sows  have  saved  any 
pigs;  the  rest  lost  all  the  young  they  had.  Four  or  five  sows  that  for 
the  last  three  weeks  have  had  no  melons,  nothing  but  green  grass  and 
a  little  whole  barley  each  day,  are  saving  their  pigs  all  right. 


210  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Pie-melons  are  poor  feed  and  pigs  which  are  not  given  anything 
better  ought  to  fail.  "Green  grass  and  a  little  whole  barley"  is  much 
better  feed  than  pie-melons.  Pie-melons  are  useful  fed  with  alfalfa 
hay  or  some  richer  food. 

Wheat  or  Barley  for  Hogs. 

Which  would  be  the  better  grain  for  me  to  buy  for  hog  feed;  zuheat 
at  $1.30  per  hundred,  or  barley  at  $1?  Would  it  be  ivorth  paying  10 
cents  a  hundred  for  rolling,  and  then  haul  the  grain  8  miles  by  wagon? 

Wheat  is  only  considered  about  10  per  cent  more  valuable  as  a 
hog  feed  than  barley,  so  that  in  your  case,  barley  at  $1  is  the 
cheaper.  In  Bulletin  80  of  the  Oregon  Station  it  was  found  that 
crushed  wheat  was  29  per  cent  more  efificient  than  the  whole  grain, 
and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  barley  will  run  about  the  same,  enough 
so  at  any  rate  to  pay  the  extra  10  cents  a  hundred  for  crushing 
and  the  hauling. 

Grain  and  Pasture  for  Pigs. 

What  is  the  most  profitable  amount  of  grain  to  feed  to  spring  pigs 
while  on  alfalfa  pasture,  from  the  time  of  iveaning  to  the  time  of  mar- 
keting? 

We  doubt  the  profit  of  feeding  whole  grain  to  hogs  of  any  age 
while  on  green  pasture.  On  almost  all  kinds  of  land  they  will  get 
enough  grit  to  keep  their  teeth  sore,  hence  they  will  not  masticate 
the  grain  thoroughly.  Perfect  mastication  is  very  essential.  We 
would  feed  the  pigs  all  the  slop  that  they  would  clean  up  good 
twice  a  day.  The  slop  to  be  composed  of  equal  parts  of  corn,  barley 
meal  ground  fine,  and  wheat  middlings  mixed  with  milk.  There  is 
nothing  in  all  the  world  like  milk  for  growing  pigs.  If  milk  is  not 
to  be  had,  we  would  add  from  5  to  10  per  cent  meat  meal,  which  we 
consider  next  to  milk.  If  whole  grain  is  to  be  used,  it  should  be 
thoroughly  cooked  on  account  of  the  pigs'  teeth  not  being  in  con- 
dition to  chew  the  hard  grain. — Chas.  Goodman. 

Growing  Pigs  on  Roots  and  Barley. 

We  can  raise  all  kinds  of  root  crops,  such  as  carrots,  sugar  beets, 
rutabagas,  etc.,  and  cow  peas  and  pumpkins  do  wonderfully  well.  Will 
hogs  do  well  on  that  kind  of  diet,  especially  if  given  a  little  barley  with 
it? 

The  plants  that  you  mention  are  good  for  hog  feeding  and  can 
be  used  to  advantage  with  a  little  barley  as  you  suggest.  None  of 
these  plants  are,  however,  rich  in  protein  as  alfalfa  and  the  other 
clovers  are.  The  reason  why  we  get  such  a  rapid  and  satisfactory 
growth  of  young  hogs  in  California  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are 
largely  kept  on  alfalfa  and  rapid  growth  is  the  product  of  a  suf- 
ficient protein  content  in  the  fodder.  Both  common  field  peas  and 
cowpeas  do  not  possess  this  element,  and  if  you  can  grow  them  they 


Feeding  Farm  Animals  211 

will  serve  as  a  substitute  for  tlic  other  legumes,  such  as  alfalfa. 
If  you  are  feeding  skim-milk,  which  is  rich  in  protein,  roots  and 
grain  will  go  well  with  that. 

Wheat  and  Barley  for  Feeding. 

What  is  the  difference  in  the  feeding  vnhie  of  zvhcat  and  barley  for 
hogs  and  horses f 

There  is  very  little  difference  in  the  chemical  composition  of 
wheat  and  barley.  In  their  physical  condition  there  is  much  differ- 
ence, chiefly  because  of  the  adhering  chaff  of  the  barley,  which 
makes  it  more  digestible  because  it  separates  the  starchy  mass  and 
enables  the  gastric  juice  to  work  upon  the  particles  more  readily 
and  quickly.  Oats  also  have  this  character.  This  is  very  important 
in  the  case  of  horses,  which  can  quickly  be  put  out  of  condition  by 
feeding  wheat.  For  hogs  and  chickens  it  makes  much  less  difference, 
and  the  absence  of  the  chaflf  gives  a  greater  amount  of  nutritive 
matter  to  the  ton,  so  that  wheat  is  worth  more  at  the  same  ton  price. 
But  look  out  about  giving  horses  too  much  wheat. 


PART  VII.    DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


Abscess  of  Parotid  Gland. 

My  horse  has  had  a  bad  cold  and  it  has  a  large  lump  on  its  neck 
zvhich  keeps  running  and  does  not  seem  to  get  any  better;  it  has  been 
running  for  two  weeks. 

This  horse  has  an  abscess  of  the  parotid  gland  and  the  abscess 
should  be  opened  large  enough  so  that  the  finger  can  be  introduced 
to  break  down  adhesions,  so  that  proper  drainage  can  be  established, 
after  which  wash  out  with  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  permanganate  of 
potash.  As  this  is  a  dangerous  location  for  a  layman  to  interfere 
with,  owing  to  the  branching  of  the  carotid  artery,  pneumogastric 
nerve  and  jugular  vein,  it  should  be  done  by  a  qualified  veterinarian. 

Forage  Poisoning. 

Last  fall  one  of  our  horses  zvas  taken  ill  and  had  a  swollen  jaw. 
He  died  soon  and  we  supposed  that  he  had  been  kicked  and  died  of 
lockjaw.  This  spring  another  was  taken  ill.  He  began  dragging  around, 
tnaking  an  effort  to  eat  and  drink,  but  not  being  able  to  swallow  much. 
Something  seemed  zvrong  zvith  his  throat  and  his  hind  legs.  In  two  or 
three  days  he  got  dozvn,  seeming  to  have  no  strength  in  his  back.  He 
kept  struggling  for  two  days,  not  being  able  to  swallow  much;  so  we 
put  him  out  of  his  misery.  Since  then  two  others  have  gone  off  tlw 
same  way. 

The  trouble  is  due  to  forage  poisoning,  caused  by  the  eating 
food  infested  with  poisonous  moulds.  The  symptoms  are  inability  to 
swallow  (paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  deglutition)  and  paresis  of  the 
hind  and  forequarters.  When  the  symptoms  become  advanced,  treat- 
ment is  of  little  avail.  However,  further  troubles  can  be  prevented 
by  ascertaining  the  food  which  is  infested  with  this  mould.  Ofttimes, 
however,  such  food  may  be  apparently  clean  to  the  eye.  Make  a 
complete  change  of  food  and  a  thorough  cleaning  of  your  stable 
and  corrals  of  all  old  fodder  which  might  be  in  the  mangers,  or  in 
any  accessible  place.  Very  frequently  old  food  which  is  left  in  the 
bottom  of  mangers  becomes  mouldy,  and  horses  picking  for  grain 
which  might  be  left  in  it,  eat  considerable  quantities  of  this  spoiled 
fodder,    get    poisoned. 


*This   division   is   largely   compiled   from   the   writings   of  Dr.   E.   J. 
Creely  of  the  San  Francisco  Veterinary  College. 


Diseases  of  Animals  213 

For  a  Scabby  Swelling. 

One  of  my  cows  has  a  szi.'cUi>ig  on  her  hind  leg  z(.'ith  little  scab^ 
on  it,  first  it  zvas  on  the  front  leg.     It  is  as  big  as  your  hand. 

Use  the  following,  applied  once  daily:  Olive  oil,  1  pint;  tur- 
pentine, 2  ounces;  oil  cedar,  2  ounces;  lysol,  1  ounce;  mix  and  apply. 

An  Easement  in  Bloat. 

What  can  be  done  for  bloating  f 

It  does  not  seem  to  be  generally  known  that  to  put  a  bridle  on 
a  cow  or  put  a  stick  in  her  mouth  and  tie  tightly  with  a  string  or 
strap  up  over  her  head,  so  as  to  keep  her  jaws  working,  will  relieve 
bloat.  We  have  given  common  soda  and  salt  with  good  results  to 
our  milk  cows.  Take  a  whip  and  run  her  around  the  corral,  after 
giving  the  soda.     This  treatment  causes  the  wind  to  pass  ofif. 

Fatal  Skin  Disease. 

About  two  months  ago  a  horse  zvas  turned  out  in  pasture.  Several 
of  the  horses  in  the  pasture  started  to  lose  their  hair.  It  seemed  to  fall 
away  from  the  hide,  and  leave  the  skin  exposed.  The  horse  that  zvas 
newly  turned  to  pasture  got  the  same  disease  and  died.  The  other  horses 
did  not  die.  The  hair  on  the  horse  that  had  died  had  fallen  off  from 
the  sides  and  hind  legs. 

This  is  gangrenous  dermatis,  a  gangrenout  inflammation  of  the 
skin.  It  is  due  to  mould,  must  or  vegetable  fungi.  Remove  to  a 
new  pasture,  give  food  free  from  the  fungi,  and  apply  the  following 
ointment  to  the  skin:  Lanoline,  8  ounces;  zinc  oxide,  1  ounce; 
Pearson's  Creoline,  Y2  ounce;  tannin,  3  drachms;  mix  and  apply  once 
daily. 

Shoulder  Injury  on  Mare. 

A  young  mare  that  bruised  her  shoulder  on  the  point  zvith  collar. 
It  was  lanced  and  now  has  a  hard  lump  or  callous,  about  three  inches 
in  diameter.  What  is  best  to  do?  She  is  not  lame,  but  it  zvould  inter- 
fere with  the  collar. 

Get  a  qualified  veterinarian  to  operate  and  entirely  remove  the 
growth  or  you  may  use  the  following  mixture  to  see  if  it  will  not 
cause  it  to  partly  absorb  and  then  use  a  dutch  collar  or  a  specially 
padded  collar:  Compound  tinct.  iodine,  4  ounces;  sulphuric  ether,  2 
ounces;  oil  cedar,  2  ounces;  turpentine,  4  ounces;  mix  and  apply 
once  daily  until  blistered. 

Horse  with  Worms. 

What  is  the  best  remedy  for  a  horse  that  has  zvormsf  I  zvould  like 
to  knozv,  as  I  have  a  horse  that  is  getting  poor  zvith  this  trouble. 

Mix  H  pound  pulverized  and  dried  iron  sulphate  and  Yz  pound 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  give  one  teaspoonful  each  morning  until  the 


214  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

medicine  is  gone.  After  the  last  dose  give  the  following:  Turpen- 
tine, 2  ounces;  fluid  extract  male  fern,  J/2  ounce;  Pearson's  Creolins, 
1  ounce;  raw  linseed  oil,  1  pint.  Mix  and  give  all  at  one  dose.  To 
improve  the  general  condition  one  may  give  artificial  Carlsbad  salts, 
1  tablespoonful  in  each  feed,  and  each  dose  to  have  added  to  it  3 
to  5  grains  arsenious  acid.  If  plenty  rock  salt  is  allowed  for  horses 
to  lick,  they  will  be  protected  against  intestinal  parasites  to  a  slight 
but  useful  degree. 

Is  It  Mange? 

We  have  a  horse  five  years  old  that  is  akvays  scratching  and  biting 
himself  as  if  he  had  mange  or  lice.  He  seems  to  itch  more  on  his  should- 
ers and  front  legs  than  any  other  place.  We  have  zvashed  him  with  a 
carbolic  wash,  also  zvith  a  tea  made  from  tobacco,  but  so  far  have  been 
unable  to  stop  it.  He  often  bites  his  legs  below  the  knees  until  he  takes 
off  all  the  hair  and  part  of  the  skin.  None  of  the  other  horses  are, 
troubled,  although  this  horse  has  been  troubled  for  three  years. 

Apply  the  following:  Lysol,  1  ounce;  kerosene,  4  ounces;  for- 
malin, 2  drachms;  cotton  seed  oil,  9  ounces.  Mix  and  apply  once 
daily  after  washing  with  hot  sheep  dip  solution  10  to  100. 

Horse  with  Itch. 

For  about  a  year  my  horse  has  been  itching  so  badly  that  he  has 
rubbed  off  all  the  hair  on  certain  parts  of  his  body.  Lately  he  bites 
his  tail. 

Whitewash  the  stall  once  weekly,  scrub  the  harness,  brushes, 
combs  and  every  stable  appliance  that  he  has  come  in  contact  with. 
Don't  use  the  same  appliance  on  other  animals  that  you  use  on  this 
horse.  Use  the  following  mixture  once  daily  on  affected  spots: 
Milk  of  sulphur,  4  ounces;  tincture  of  iodine,  4  ounces;  turpentine, 
4  ounces;  kerosene,  16  ounces;  cottonseed  oil,   120  ounces. 

For  a  Bowel   Trouble. 

What  can  I  do  to  relieve  a  horse  that  balls  up  on  alfalfa  at  the  time 
of  the  first  symptoms?  I  have  been  bothered  considerably  with  this,  and 
although  I  know  the  symptoms,  I  can  never  seem  to  relieve  the  pain 
before  the  veterinary  is  called. 

Give  the  following  prescription:  Fluid  extract  Cannabis  Indica, 
3  ounces;  sulphuric  ether,  2  ounces;  spirits  turpentine,  3  ounces;  oil 
peppermint,  10  drops;  raw  linseed  oil,  24  ounces.  Mix.  Give  one- 
half  at  once,  balance  in  one  hour.  If  not  relieved  give  several  hot- 
water  soap-sud  injections. 

Abnormal  Thirst  of  Horse. 

/  have  a  horse  with  an  abnormal  desire  for  ivatcr.  I  notice  that  in 
drinking  she  always  zvants  more  than  the  others.  I  also  notice  she  per- 
spires more  freely  in  the  harness  and  even  will  siveat  in  the  barn  at 
night. 


Diseases  of  Animals  215 

Your  horse  has  kidney  affection,  probably  due  to  feeding  hay 
rich  in  alkalines.  Treatment:  Change  the  feed  and  give  1  quart 
of  thick  flaxseed  tea  three  times  daily. 

Scours. 

Kindly  recommoid  a  treatment  for  a  Iwrsc  troubled  ivith  scours.  He 
is  on  dry  feed,  but  the  trouble  continues. 

Give  very  little  water  mornings  and  while  worked,  but  give 
plenty  at  night.  Feed  dry  rolled  oats,  oat  hay,  one  handful  of  whole 
flaxseed  at  night,  and  the  following  powder:  Bismuth  subgalate, 
4  ounces;  iron  sulphate,  dessicated,  8  ounces;  bismuth  subnitrate, 
8  ounces.     Mix,  and  give  a  heaping  teaspoonful  each  morning. 

Depraved  Appetite. 

/  haz'e  a  colt  about  one  year  old  that  continually  delights  in  chewing 
up  harness,  ropes,  chezvs  on  the  manger  and,  in  fact,  anything  it  can  get 
a  hold  of. 

This  is  a  condition  caused  by  something  being  lacking  in  the 
system  (lime,  salts,  etc.).  Give  plenty  of  salt,  good  food,  grain,  etc. 
Get  this  prescription:  Iron  sulphate,  2  ounces;  soda  syposulphate,  4 
ounces;  Gentian  root  pulv.,  2  ounces;  ginger,  1  ounce.  Mix  and  give 
teaspoonful  daily. 

Good  Dentist  Needed. 

/  have  an  old  horse  which  has  ahvays  been  fat  and  quite  full  of  life 
until  right  lately.  Now  he  is  getting  thin  and  looks  bad.  He  eats  his 
food  all  right.  I  had  his  teeth  fixed  a  feiv  zveeks  ago.  The  man  said 
they  ivere  bad  and  he  fixed  them  as  zvell  as  he  could. 

There  is  probably  an  excessively  long  molar  projecting  into  a 
cavity  and  the  projecting  molar  should  be  cut  off  by  a  qualified 
veterinarian.  The  horse  will  begin  to  pick  up  and  grow  fat  almost 
as  soon  as  the  condition  is  relieved.  Most  horse  owners  will  permit 
every  person  with  a  float  to  ruin  a  horse's  mouth  without  inquiring 
whether  the  dentist  possesses  proper  qualifications  as  certified  by 
a  State  license  and  diploma. 

Kidney  Trouble. 

My  horse  has  some  trouble  in  passing  zvater.  What  can  I  give  him 
that  may  be  put  in  the  mash?  I  don't  think  his  trouble  is  due  all  to 
old  age,  for  it  didn't  come  on  gradually. 

Give  gran,  sal  nitre:  a  teaspoonful  daily  in  water  is  good  to 
stimulate  the  kidneys. 

For    Chronic    Indigestion. 

/  have  given  my  horse  condition  powders  for  indigestion,  but  her 
hair  is  rough  still.  Do  you  advise  feeding  on  the  road  when  a  horse 
leaves  the  stable  at  lo  a.  m.,  traveling  continually  for  thirty  miles,  re- 
turning 5:30  p.  tn.,  being  fed  at  7  a.  m.f 


216  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

A  great  majority  of  condition  powders  contain  resin  and  anti- 
mony. While  a  slight  amount  may  be  beneficial,  continued  use  re- 
sults in  afifection  of  the  kidneys  by  over-stimulation.  Give  the  fol- 
lowing for  indigestion:  Bismuth  subintrate,  1  ounce;  powdered 
pepsine,  1  ounce;  soda  bi  carbonate,  12  ounces;  carbonate  iron,  2 
ounces.  Mix  and  give  a  heaping  teaspoon  twice  daily.  By  all  means 
feed  your  horse  three  times  daily  and  water  as  often  as  you  can. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  warn  you  that  the  horse  must  not  be  overheated 
when  you   give   the   noonday  feed. 

Wound  Sore. 

My  colt  got  its  hind  leg  cut  on  barbed  wire  some  weeks  ago.  There 
is  a  hole  about  an  inch  and  one-half  deep  in  the  center  of  the  sore  which 
will  not  heal.  The  inside  of  the  sore  does  not  seem  very  tender,  but  the 
leg  stays  swollen  all  of  the  time  and  is  somewhat  feverish. 

This  is  probably  a  fistulous  track  that  should  be  curetted  by  a 
veterinarian,  after  which  the  following  formula  could  be  used  to  heal: 
Acetanilide,  ^  ounce;  zinc  oxide,  %  ounce;  bismuth  subgalate,  1^ 
ounce.  Mix  and  apply  on  cotton  and  bandage  once  daily  after  wash- 
ing. 

Warts  on  Horse. 

How  can  zvarts  be  removed  from  a  horse's  hide? 

We  use  sulphuric  acid.  The  results  were  favorable  from  the 
very  start.  The  warts  rapidly  shrunk  away  and  finally  disappeared 
entirely.  The  acid  is  applied  to  the  crown  of  the  wart  with  a  small 
swab  or  similar  instrument,  and  only  in  sufficient  quantities  to  wet 
the  crown  surface  of  the  wart.  It  should  be  applied  about  three  times 
a  week  until  the  wart  is  well  reduced.  Don't  use  too  much  acid,  and 
don't  keep  up  the  application  too  long. — A.  F.  Etter. 

Kidney  Trouble  in  Horse, 

What  is  the  remedy  for  a  horse  that  stops  often  to  urinate  zvhile 
working? 

The  horse  is  affected  by  an  irritation  of  the  kidneys.  Give  1 
quart  of  flaxseed  tea  daily,  change  the  food  and  give  1  drachm  of 
C.   P.  hydro-chloric  acid  in  one  bucket  of  drinking  water. 

Castration  of  Colt. 

Which  is  the  correct  and  best  ivay  to  castrate  a  yearling  colt,  with 
an  emasculator  or  a  blade,  and  when  is  the  proper  time? 

An  emasculator  is  the  only  instrument  to  use  in  castrating.  The 
object  in  using  any  instrument  is  to  prevent  a  hemorrhage,  and  noth- 
ing works  with  so  much  certainty  and  quickness.  The  A.  Hausman 
and  Dunn  emasculator  is  recommended.  The  proper  time  is  when  the 
weather  is  mild,  the  grass  at  its  best  and  the  colt  in  good  condition. 


Diseases  of  Animals  217 

For  a  Chronic  Cough. 

We  have  a  marc  seven  years  old  that  is  troubled  ivith  a  chronic 
cough,  and  at  times  shozvs  symptoms  of  heaves,  and  also  has  occasionally 
a  zvhite  foamy  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  She  is  a  greedy  cater  and 
drinker  and  her  excreta  is  often  very  offensive. 

If  she  expels  flatus  when  she  coughs,  this  woukl  indicate  a  pre- 
disposition to  heaves.  Wet  all  food,  as  dry  or  dusty  food  aggravates 
the  cough.  Give  the  following:  Spirits  camphor,  4  ounces;  Fl.  Ext. 
belladonna,  2  ounces;  neutral  oil,  8  ounces;  oil  eucalyptus,  2  ounces. 
Mix   and    give    tablespoonful   three    times    daily. 

Chronic  Indigestion. 

/  have  a  mare  eleven  years  old.  Give  her  plenty  of  oats,  hay,  grain 
and  a  little  alfalfa  hay  three  nights  per  week  and  leave  salt  where  she 
can  get  at  it,  but  she  is  falling  off  and  her  hair  does  not  lie  down 
properly.  She  eats  zuell  and  her  system  seems  to  be  in  good  condition. 
Have  had  her  teeth  attended  to  so  she  chcivs  her  food  zvcll. 

This  condition  is  caused  by  the  animal  not  being  able  to  properly 
masticate  the  food.  Have  your  dentist  examine  the  mouth  again,  or 
you  can  carefully  examine  the  feces  and  see  if  it  shows  whole  grain, 
or  long  pieces  of  hay. 

For  Short-Wind  or  Heaves. 

/  have  a  mare  that  has  something  zvrong  with  her  wind.  About  six 
months  ago  I  noticed  her  zuind  was  not  good  and  she  had  a  slight  cough, 
and  about  a  zveek  later,  while  zvorking  her,  she  seemed  to  choke  doivn 
and  almost  died  before  she  got  her  wind,  and  since  then  she  sometimes 
takes  those  spells  should  she  trot  off  briskly  for  a  short  distance. 

Give  two  K-ounce  doses  of  Fowler's  solution  arsenic  daily.  Dusty 
or  musty  hay  will  aggravate  the  symptoms.  Thoroughly  shake  out  the 
dust  and  wet  the  hay.  Feed  hay  only  at  night.  Give  the  animal  as 
little  feed  and  water  as  possible  before  being  put  to  work.  Continue 
this  treatment  one  month  if  necessary.  The  following  is  a  case  of 
experience  with  this  treatment:  For  a  remedial  agent  we  began  to 
use  Fowler's  Solution  of  Arsenic,  in  two  teaspoonful  doses  at  first, 
once  a  day,  put  in  the  water  with  which  the  hay  was  moistened. 
These  doses  were  given  for  a  few  days,  then  skipped  for  a  day,  then 
continued  for  five  or  six  days  again.  This  treatment  has  been  con- 
tinued. At  times  when  the  trouble  was  most  severe,  giving  a  great 
spoonful  at  a  dose,  twice  a  day  for  two  days,  then  stopping  for  a  day 
or  two,  always  being  sure  to  mix  it  with  the  water  which  the  hay 
is  moistened,  so  that  it  shall  be  taken  into  the  stomach  very  slowly. 
This  course  of  treatment  has  served  to  so  relieve  the  disease  that 
nature  has  nearly  or  quite  overcome  it. 

Side-Bone. 

I  have  a  1500-pound  s-y^or-old  colt  with  small  brittle  feet  that  has 
side  bone  coming  on  left  front  foot  caused  by  driving  him  barefoot  on 
the  road  two  or  three  months  ago. 


218  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

A  good  blister  of  the  following  once  every  six  weeks  for  three 
times  will  stop  the  side-bones  from  growing.  Side-bones  on  a  draft 
horse  are  not  considered  an  imsoundness;  in  light  fast  drivers  it  is 
an  incurable  blemish  causing  lameness.  Side-bones  cannot  be  re- 
moved. Use  this  blister:  Simple  cerate,  4  ounces;  cantharides,  3 
drachms;  bin  iodide  mercur}^  2  drachms.  Mix  thoroughly  and  apply 
after    clipping   hair. 

Fungus  Poisoning. 

One  of  my  marcs,  every  evening  after  a  full  day's  zvork  harrowing, 
stands  for  an  hour  or  so  with  her  head  to  the  ground,  shaking  it  frequently 
and  not  touching  the  feed  till  the  spell  was  over.  She  does  not  seetn  to 
be  any  tuorse  off,  and  in  the  morning  seems  to  be  in  good  shape. 

This  is  due  to  a  mold  or  fungus  in  the  earth  or  hay.  Let  them 
have  access  to  plenty  of  water  during  the  day.  In  the  morning  feed 
give  a  handful  of  sodium  hyposulphate. 

Treatment  for  Horse's  Feet. 

The  soles  of  the  fore  feet  of  a  fine  4-ycar-old  horse,  weight  1350, 
are  rather  spongy  and  grow  dozvn  faster  than  the  hoof,  sometimes  causing 
slight  lameness.  He  is  not  on  soft  pasture,  but  is  stabled  all  the  time. 
Now  have  bar  shoes  on  him.     What  treatment  do  you  recommend? 

Use  leather,  tar  and  okum  and  a  dish-shoe. 

For  a  Cleft  Hoof. 

/  have  a  horse  with  a  cracked  hoof.  One  hind  foot  has  been  in  a 
bad  condition,  the  other  seems  to  be  beginning  to  crack.  Can  anything  be 
done  by  feeding  or  otherwise  to  toughen  the  hoofs  and  render  them  less 
liable  to  crack f 

Apply  the  following:  Honey,  2  ounces;  yellow  wax,  4  ounces; 
tar,  2  ounces;  olive  oil,  8  ounces.     Melt,  mix  and  apply  once  daily. 

Stiff  Joints. 

/  have  a  horse  that  ivas  bruised  on  the  ankle  about  tzvo  years  ago. 
This  is  nozv  producing  an  enlargement  of  the  bone  and  stiffness  of  the 
joint. 

Apply  the  following  liniment:  Sulphuric  ether,  1  ounce;  tinct. 
iodine,  1  ounce;  pulv.  camphor,  1  ounce;  alcohol,  5  ounces;  turpentine, 
2  ounces;  oil  of  cedar,  2  ounces. 

Treatment  for  Nail  Puncture. 

Our  horse  got  a  nail  in  his  foot.  It  was  a  wire  nail,  rusty,  entering 
about  one  inch  from  the  point  of  the  frog,  and  just  puncturing  far  enough 
to  reach  a  sejtsitive  part  of  the  hoof.  It  occurred  six  days  ago;  the  nail 
was  pulled  at  once,  the  hoof  cut  open,  and  thoroughly  cleaned  zvith  tur- 
pentine (the  first  thing  we  could  get),  then  later  filled  zvith  iodine.  Since 
then  I  have  kept  on  a  flaxseed  poultice. 


Diseases  of  Animals  219 

The  treatment  with  turpentine  and  iodine  was  proper  and  should 
prove  a  success.  If  the  foot  becomes  tender  and  inflamed,  it  will 
be  because  all  dirt  was  not  removed  from  the  wound,  and  the  poul- 
tice should  be  taken  off,  all  foreign  matter  removed  from  the  wound, 
and  the  treatment  repeated.  In  case  of  similar  accidents,  other  dis- 
infectants could  be  used  in  place  of  turpentine  or  iodine. 

Pregnancy  of  Mare. 

Is  there  any  way  to  tell  zvhen  a  marc  is  in  foal?  I  have  had  a 
veterinarian  and  he  could  not  tell  mc. 

There  is  no  very  good  way  to  tell  whether  a  mare  is  in  foal  for 
some  time.  Practically  speaking,  the  safest  way  to  do  is  to  have  her 
bred  every  time  she  comes  in  heat  until  she  takes  the  stallion  no  longer. 
Even  then  some  mares  will  come  in  heat  a  couple  of  times  after  get- 
ting in  foal.  If  the  sexual  excitement  speedily  subsides  and  the  mare 
persistently  refuses  the  stallion  for  a  month,  she  is  probably  pregnant, 
though  not  surely  so.  Also  if  a  vicious  mare  becomes  gentle  after 
service  it  is  an  excellent  indication  of  pregnancy;  likewise  pregnant 
mares  will  very  often  put  on  fat  rapidly  after  conception  and  will 
be  unable  and  unwilling  to  do  as  hard  work  as  before.  Enlargement 
of  the  abdomen,  especially  in  its  lower  third,  with  slight  falling  in 
beneath  the  loins  and  hollowness  of  the  back  are  significant  symptoms, 
though  they  may  be  entirely  absent.  Swelling  and  firmness  of  the 
udder,  with  the  smoothing  out  of  its  wrinkles,  is  a  suggestive  sign, 
even  though  it  appears  only  at  intervals  during  gestation.  A  steady 
increase  of  weight  (1^  pounds  daily)  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  month 
is  a  useful  indication  of  pregnancy.  The  further  along  the  mare  is 
in  gestation  the  more  pronounced  the  symptoms  become.  In  the  early 
stages  it  is  naturally  much  more  difficult  to  detect,  especially  with  the 
great  differences  in  different  mares.  Cessation  of  heat  and  changes 
of  disposition  are  about  the  best  signs  in  early  stages. 

Diseased  Uterus  of  Mare. 

/  have  a  brood  mare  that  has  given  me  tzi'o  fine  colts,  but  for  the 
last  tivo  years  I  have  not  been  able  to  get  her  with  foal.  She  takes  service 
and  then  refuses  service  for  three  or  four  months,  and  about  the  time 
I  come  to  the  conclusion  that  she  is  safe  with  foal  she  zvill  pass  off  great 
quantities  of  mattery  substance.  I  have  had  her  thoroughly  zuashed  out 
with  Lysol  previous  to  breeding,  but  so  far  she  has  repeated  this  per- 
formance each  time  about  three  or  four  months  after  service. 

This  is  a  disease  of  the  ovaries  or  uterus;  perhaps  mumification 
of  a  foetus.  Irrigate  with  anormal  salt  solution  (teaspoon  salt  to 
each  pint  of  warm  water)  only  daily.  Insert  the  solution  through 
the  neck  of  the  womb  into  the  uterus.  Give  internally  J^  ounce  daily 
of  Fowler's   Solution  of  Arsenic. 

Deep-Seated  Abscess. 

/  have  a  mule  which  has  a  swelling  on  the  throat  about  zvhcre  the 
throatlatch  touches.     It  just  seems  to  be  swollen  hard  and  not  sore.     I 


220  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

(7;;/  using  caustic  liniment  to  fester  it  so  it  zvill  cone  to  a  head  and  I 
can  open  it,  but  the  liniment  does  not  seem  to  do  much  good.  The  mule 
is  losing  flesh  and  does  not  eat  much. 

This  mule  should  be  operated  upon  at  once  by  a  qualified  veter- 
inarian. The  application  of  liniments  or  blisters  are  useless;  the  knife 
only  will  efifect  a  cure.  The  fact  that  the  mule  is  losing  flesh  makes 
the  case  serious. 

Cure  for  Cocked  Ankles. 

/  have  a  4-year-old  mare  that  has  cocked  ankles,  and  would  like  to 
knozv  zvhat  treatment  to  give  her. 

Cocked  ankles  are  due  to  an  inflammation  of  the  tendons  back 
of  the  ankle  and  a  drawing  up  or  contraction  in  consequence.  Put 
on  heel  calks  one  inch,  no  toe,  to  rest  and  relieve  the  back  tendons 
from  strain.  Apply  the  following  liniment  at  night,  after  which  put 
on  cold-water  swabs  and  let  them  remain  all  night:  Soap  liniment, 
8  ounces;  tincture  iodine,  2  ounces;  oil  cedar,  4  ounces;  sulphuric 
ether,  2  ounces.     Mix  and  apply  once  daily. 

Dehorning. 

Which  is  the  best  way  to  dehorn  cozvs  and  calves^ 

The  best  time  to  dehorn  cows  is  in  the  spring,  before  the  fly 
season  starts.  It  is  best  not  to  have  a  cow  too  far  along  in  calf 
before  dehorning,  as  she  is  very  apt  to  lose  her  calf.  It  is  also  better 
to  dehorn  before  j^our  cows  freshen,  because  when  cows  are  milking 
and  are  dehorned  they  will  go  back  in  their  milk  a  great  deal  for  the 
first  month  after  the  dehorning  has  taken  place.  Calves  can  be  de- 
horned by  blistering  the  little  buttons  before  they  adhere  to  the 
skull.  This  is  very  simple  and  not  painful.  First  clip  the  hair  about 
the  horns  and  wet  the  little  loose  button  and  apply  caustic  potash, 
in  stick  form,  by  rubbing  it  on  the  damp  horn.  Remember,  this  must 
be  done  before  the  horn  adheres  to  the  skull.  Also  remember  not  to 
use  water  enough  to  run  the  lye  away  from  the  button  and  rub  until 
the  skin  reddens.  Also,  look  out  to  keep  your  end  of  the  potash 
stick  dry  or  you  may  dehorn  the  tips  of  your  fingers. 

Paralysis  During  Pregnancy. 

/  have  a  cozv  that  zvill  freshen  in  a  fezv  days.  About  six  days  ago 
she  seemed  zveak  in  her  hind  legs  and  on  going  dozvnhill  would  drag  or 
stumble  for  10  or  12  feet,  then  catch  herself  and  go  on  rather  wobbly. 

Pregnant  animals  about  to  bring  forth  their  young  sometimes 
show  a  paralysis  or  loss  of  power  in  their  hind  parts  due  to  pressure 
of  foetus.      Nature   corrects   this   after   birth. 

Bloody  Milk. 

What  can  be  done  to  stop  bloody  milk? 

Milk  each  teat  in  a  separate  glass  jar,  let  stand  to  ascertain  which 
teat  the  red  specks  are  coming  from,  then  milk  the  teats  clean  and 


Diseases  of  Animals  221 

inject  the  infected  teat  with  equal  parts  of  hydrogen  dioxide  and  water. 
After  a  few  hours  inject  4  drachms  of  ferric  chloride  in  1  ounce  of 
water.     Then  milk  clean. 

To   Cleanse   Cows. 

My  cozvs  are  healthy  and  calves  all  ri^^ht,  but  seem  to  hare  trouble 
throzving  the  afterbirth. 

Wash  out  twice  daily  with  about  1  gallon  of  normal  salt  solu- 
tion (teaspoonful  of  salt  to  each  pint  of  warm  water).  Give  in- 
ternally the  following  powder:  Pulv.  gentian,  4  ounces;  puv.  slippery 
elm,  1  ounce;  puv.  charcoal,  1  ounce;  pulv.  hyposulphate  of  soda. 
8  ounces.     Mix  and  give  a  heaping  teaspoonful  twice   daily. 

Treatment  for  Caked  Bag. 

/  hai'e  a  coiv  zvhose  udder  is  caked  hard  and  has  been  szvoUen  from 
the  udder  to  the  forelegs.  This  latter  szvelling  has  gone  dozvn  by  applx- 
ing  equal  mixture  of  turpentine  and  lard,  but  the  udder  itself  still  remains 
hard.  When  first  noticed,  one  teat  caked,  then  another,  until  all  four 
are  caked  alike. 

Insert  a  milk  tube  and  inject  the  following:  Hydrogen  dioxide, 
8  ounces;  tincture  iron  chloride,  1  ounce;  water,  7  ounces.  Inject 
into  each  affected  teat.  Apply  the  following  externally :  Camphorated  oil, 
8  ounces ;  tincture  belladonna,  2  ounces ;  oil  eucalyptus,  2  ounces.  Mix 
and  apply  twice  daily. 

Garget. 

/  have  a  cow  zvhich  gave  rich  milk  all  the  time,  but  nozv  every  time 
I  milk  her  some  yellozu,  hard  substance  zvill  come  out  instead  of  milk. 
First  from  one  teat,  then  the  ne.rt,  and  zvhen  I  strain  the  milk  the  strainer 
zvill  be  full  of  hard  yellozv  specks. 

Your  cow  has  undoubtedly  been  affected  with  garget.  This 
milk  should  not  be  used.  The  condition  is  best  treated  by  massag- 
ing the  udder  every  day  with  camphorated  oil.  It  will  also  be 
necessarj'-  for  you  to  continue  to  milk  her  regularly  until  about  six 
weeks  before  she  is  due  to  freshen,  at  which  time  you  should  pro- 
ceed to  dry  her  up. 

Infectious  Mastitis. 

We  have  a  2-ycar-old  heifer,  zvhich,  tzvo  zveeks  before  she  zvas  due 
to  freshen,  had  a  large  udder  slightly  caked.  Upon  pressing  the  teat  a 
discharge  of  blood  issues  from  each  teat. 

This  is  infectious  mastitis.  It  may  be  due  to  a  bruise  or  blow 
or  infection  introduced  through  the  milk  duct.  The  first  is  most 
likely.  Apply  camphorated  oil  externally  and  inject  into  the  affected 
udder  some  hydrogen  dioxide  (peroxide  of  hydrogen. — Editor.). 
After  ten   minutes,   milk   out   again.      Repeat   once   daily. 

A    Mangy   Cow. 

/  have  a  milk  cozv  zvifh  some  trouble  about  her  head,  neck  and 
shoulders,  zvhich  causes  her  to  rub  herself  enough  to  make  razv  spots  and 


222  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

take  off  most  all  of  the  hair  from  the  parts  affected.  The  trouble  has 
been  standing  for  i8  months,  but  I  have  been  using  medicine  at  different 
times,  which  stops  the  rubbing,  and  the  part  zvill  cover  with  hair  nicely 
again,  but  in  due  time  the  trouble  shows  up  again. 

This  cow  seems  to  have  mange  or  scabbies,  which  is  caused  by 
a  parasite  and  is  easily  spread  by  contact  to  other  cattle.  It  should 
be  treated  by  two  or  three  applications,  ten  days  apart,  of  a  hot 
solution  of  creolin,  well  scrubbed  into  the  skin.  The  solution  is 
made  by  mixing  five  tablespoonfuls  of  creolin  in  a  gallon  of  hot 
water.  The  treatment  should  be  applied  pretty  well  over  the  body 
to  cover  all  the  affected  parts,  and  needs  to  be  repeated  in  ten  days 
to  destroy  the  younger  generation.  The  sheds  should  be  cleaned 
and   whitewashed. 

Irritation  on  Back  of  Udder. 

/  have  a  yearling  heifer  which  has  sore  teats  and  blotches  just  back 
of  her  bag  zvhich  seem  to  itch.  Her  mother  had  a  sort  of  eczema  on  her 
neck.  I  fear  her  sore  teats  zvill  spoil  her  for  milking  when  she  comes  in 
next  year. 

The  following  treatment  is  advised:  Drench  with  1  pound  of 
Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  a  couple  quarts  of  water.  The  sores  may 
be  treated  by  washing  them  with  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  one  of  the 
coaltar  disinfectants,  such  as  creolin.  After  the  sores  have  been 
allowed  to  dry  naturally,  a  very  little  powdered  calomel  may  be 
dusted   thereon.     Do   this   every  other  day  for  a  few  days. 

Enlarged   Gland  on   Neck. 

/  have  a  calf  that  has  a  lump  on  her  neck,  zvhich  appeared  zvhen  she 
was  two  days  old.    The  lump  is  getting  larger. 

This  is  probably  an  enlarged  thyroid  gland.  Apply  the  follow- 
ing once  daily  for  several  weeks  and  let  it  alone  unless  it  becomes 
too  large  or  gets  very  soft,  which  is  unlikely.  Churchill's  tincture 
iodine,  8  ounces;  turpentine,  1  ounce;  sulphuric  ether,  2  ounces;  oil 
aniseed,    J/2    ounce.     Mix  and  apply  once   daily. 

Lumpy  Jaw. 

Some  of  my  cows  have  hard  lumps  on  their  jazvs,  or  lumpy  jazv.  Can 
that  be  cured,  and  hozv? 

This  is  Actinomycosis  (lumpy  jaw)  and  is  due  to  ray  fungi 
(actinomyces)  which  are  found  originally  on  plants  which  enter  the 
body  in  various  ways.  The  trouble  usually  appears  in  the  upper  or 
lower  jaws  of  cattle,  where  it  generally  produces  tumors  of  bone  or 
soft  tissues.  For  treatment  give  V/i  drachms  of  iodide  of  potash  in  Yz 
pint  of  water  daily  for  14  days.  Increase  to  2  drachms  for  14  more 
days,  and  then  gradually  decrease.  Divide  the  tumor  and  insert  gauze 
saturated  with  tincture  of  iodine  for  4  days.  In  8  days  a  visible  im- 
provement will  be  noticed. 


Diseases  of  Animals  223 

A   Neck-Swelling. 

My  cow  has  a  swelling  under  her  neck  betzveen  her  jaw  bones  about 
the  size  of  a  baseball  and  almost  as  hard..  It  is  not  attached  to  anything 
apparently,  but  largely  suspended  by  the  skin  at  the  entrance  to  the  throat. 

Cut  directly  through  the  center  of  the  enlargement,  clean  to  the 
bottom,  splitting  it  wide  open.  Clean  it  out  with  peroxide  of  hydrogen, 
after  which  saturate  absorbent  cotton  with  tincture  iodine,  pack  in  tight 
and  sew  the  skin  to  hold  it  in  place.  Remove  the  dressing  in  48  hours 
and  wash  with  sheep  dip  (tablespoon  to  1  quart  of  warm  water)  twice 
daily.     This  may  be  tubercular,  or  the  result  of  foxtail,  etc. 

Cow  Chewing  Bones, 

One  of  my  cozvs  is  continually  chewing  bones.  What  can  I  do  to 
prevent  iff 

Give  the  cow  good  clean  hay;  some  root  crop,  cocoanut  meal, 
bran  or  soy-bean  meal.  If  the  cow  does  not  stop  mix  in  the  drink- 
ing water  twice  daily  a  little  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  Also,  have 
boxes  arranged  near  feeding  stalls  which  contain  wood  ashes,  slaked 
lime  and  salt. 

Swelling  on  the  Dewlap. 

/  have  a  cow  that  has  a  large  lump  at  the  point  of  the  breastbone, 
the  deivlap.  This  lump  is  as  large  as  a  cocoanut,  and  zvas  caused,  I 
think,  by  friction  against  a  low  manger  in  eating. 

Get  equal  parts  of  tincture  of  iodine  and  soap  liniment  and  rub 
onto  the  swelling  twice  daily  for  a  week. 

Barren   Heifers. 

/  have  three  heifers,  j  years  old,  which  have  run  with  the  bull  right 
along  and  have  failed  with  calf;  have  had  three  different  bulls  to  them; 
zi'hat  can  be  done? 

There  is  a  possibility  of  contagious  abortion  causing  these  heifers 
to  fail  to  breed.  If  this  has  occurred  in  the  herd,  the  heifers  are 
very  apt  to  be  aflfected.  If  apparently  healthy,  reduce  tTie  feed  and 
make  the  heifers  take  considerable  exercise  to  reduce  flesh.  Give 
each  a  dram  of  powdered  nux  vomica  and  one-half  dram  of  dried 
sulphate  of  iron  once  daily  in  a  little  feed.  Breed  to  a  healthy  bull 
when  the  heifers  come  in  heat. 

A  Sterile  Cow. 

/  have  a  very  fine  Jersey  cozv.  I  have  had  her  to  the  bull  every 
month,  and  can't  get  her  with  calf. 

In  an  isolated  case  of  this  kind  there  is  probably  some  disease  of 
the  generative  organs  or  some  condition  whereby  the  impregnation 
cannot  occur  even  when  the  animal  is  bred.  The  ovaries  may  be 
cystic;  there  may  be  chronic  inflammation  of  the  womb  and  possibly 
the  mouth  of  the  womb  was  injured  at  last  calf  birth  and  the  scar 


224  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

prevents  its  admitting  the  fertilizing  cells.  If  possible,  a  veterinarian 
should  make  a  careful  examination  of  this  cow  in  order  to  determine 
what  the  trouble  is.  However,  this  treatment  may  be  tried:  About 
the  time  of  coming  in  heat,  give  the  cow  a  large  dose  of  glaubers 
salts  (one  pound)  and  the  nux  vomica  and  iron  treatment  advised 
for  "Barren  Heifers"  in  another  paragraph.  Before  breeding  the  cow, 
apply  a  little  extract  of  belladonna  and  glycerine  to  the  mouth  of  the 
womb   and   breed  a  few  hours   after. 

Supernumerary  Teat. 

On  the  upper  part  of  one  of  the  hind  teats  of  a  young  Jersey  cow 
that  freshened  recently  for  the  first  time,  there  is  a  small  grozvth  from 
which  the  milk  comes  more  plentifully  than  from  the  natural  opening 
below.  How,  if  at  all,  can  this  opening  be  closed  without  drying  the 
cow?  The  milk  from  it  runs  all  over  the  milker's  hand  and  makes 
milking  very  disagreeable. 

The  only  thing  that  can  be  done  until  the  cow  is  dry  is  to  tie 
the  small  teat  up  before  milking.  This  can  be  done  with  a  string, 
rubber  band,  or  an  ordinary  clamp.  If  it  is  so  small  that  the  opening 
cannot  be  tied,  there  is  nothing  to  do,  except,  perhaps  to  use  her 
as  a  nurse  for  calves.  Two  of  these  might  run  with  her  at  a  time, 
making  way  for  others  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  look  after  them- 
selves. Quite  a  number  of  calves  can  sometimes  be  handled  in  a 
single  year  by  a  cow  affected  this  way  and  the  benefit  to  the  calves 
might  be  nearly  as  much  as  by  using  the  cow  for  butter  production. 
When  the  cow  is  dry  the  teat  can  be  amputated  and  the  opening  will 
close  when  the  sore  heals,  or  a  stick  of  lunar  caustic  can  be  inserted 
into  it,  causing  a  wound  that  will  heal  solid. 

Infection  of  Udder. 

Last  year  one  of  my  cows  had  milk  fever  which  affected  her  udder. 
This  year  after  freshening  she  milked  two  months  when  she  suddenly 
went  dry  on  one  side  of  her  udder.  She  is  now  badly  stiffened  up  in 
her  hind  quarters  and  off  her  feed. 

The  cow  has  infectious  mastitis  due  to  introduction  of  some  in- 
fection. Give  a  saline  purge  (1  pound  glauber  salt),  inject  peroxide 
of  hydrogen,  after  which  pump  in  sterile  air.  Apply  externally 
camphorated  oil  once  daily.  Camphorated  oil  has  a  tendency  to  dry 
up  the  secretion  of  the  gland  and  is  used  advisedly. 

Lumps  in  Teats. 

My  cozv  has  hard  lumps  in  her  teats  and  lower  part  of  the  bag. 
These  cause  pain  to  her  on  milking,  but  there  are  no  other  symptoms 
of  disorder.     This  condition  has  prevailed  several  months. 

Give  1  drachm  iodide  potash  daily  fpr  one  week;  2  drachms  the 
second  week;  3  drachms  the  third  week,  and  reduce  as  you  began. 
If  tumors  are  small  and  interfere  with  the  flow  of  milk  they  can  be 
removed. 


Diseases  of  Animals  225 

Wound  in  Teat. 

/  haz'e  a  coze  zvitli  an  open  slit  about  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  an 
inch  in  the  side  of  one  teat.  I  have  lacerated  the  edges  and  stitched  the 
slit  zvell  together  many  times  but  the  milk  zvill  ooze  out  and  prevent 
healing  together.  I  have  used  numberless  milk  tubes  to  no  avail,  as 
the  flange  on  the  tubes  loose  out.  When  I  remove  the  flange  the  tubes 
creep  up  into  the  udder  and  it  is  a  trouble  to  get  them  out  again. 

Wounds  of  a  quiescent  udder  usually  heal,  but  if  the  cow  is  in 
milk  and  the  lesions  involve  the  teats  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to 
heal  the  wound,  as  the  irritation  delays  or  interrupts  the  healing 
process.  The  following  lotion  is  one  of  the  very  best  to  use  for  teat 
wound:  Tinct.  iodine,  2  ounces;  tinct.  arnica,  2  ounces;  glycerine, 
2  ounces;  comp.  tinct.  benzoine,  2  ounces.  Mix  and  apply  twice  daily 
after  washing  with  5  per  cent  solution  carbolic  acid  and  castile  soap. 
Your  milk  tube  must  be  an  ancient  one  as  all  milk  tubes  of  today 
are  self-retainers  and  could  not  slip  into  the  udder.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  boil  the  tube  previous  to  each  using  as  you  may  cause  an 
infection  of  the  udder  by  a  filthy  tube. 

Injury  to  Udder, 

/  have  a  cozv  which  has  a  gathering  in  the  back  of  her  udder  zvhich 
seoHs  to  be  some  sort  of  injury.    It  has  been  there  but  a  fezv  days. 

This  injury  was  caused  by  a  blow  or  traumatism.  Thoroughly 
scrape  out  the  diseased  tissue  and  after  washing  with  sheep-dip 
water  (tablespoon  to  one  quart)  apply  the  following  powder:  Mix 
the  following  powder  and  apply  it  to  the  wound:  Iodoform,  1 
drachm;  boric  acid,  1  ounce;  alum,  14  ounce;  zinc  oxide,  yi  ounce. 
Be  sure  and  insert  this  powder  into  the  bottom  of  the  wound,  so 
that  it  will  reach  all  diseased  parts. 

Blind  Teat. 

What  can  I  do  for  a  "blind  teat"?  The  cozv  has  just  freshened  and 
that  quarter  of  her  udder  is  very  full,  but  there  is  no  milk  in  the  teat. 

1  have    been    rubbing    and    greasing    the    udder.      The    blind    quarter   is 
slightly  inflamed. 

An  artificial  opening  should  be  made  in  the  teat  at  once.  Call 
in  the  nearest  physician  unless  you  have  a  regular  graduate  veteri- 
narian near. 

Cow^  Pox. 

/  have  a  yearling  heifer  zvhich  is  in  fine  condition  and  making  good 
growth.  But  all  four  of  her  teats  haz'e  sores  on  them  and  are  mostly 
covered  with  scabs. 

It  is  probably  cow  pox.  Give  a  physic  of  glauber  and  epsom  salts 
mixed  4  ounces  of  each  to  the  heifer  and  double  the  dose  to  the 
cow.  Apply  externally,  once  daily,  after  washing,  the  following  pre- 
scription:    Zinc   ointment,  4   ounces;   iodoform,    J/S    ounce;   glycerine, 

2  ounces;    carbolic   acid,   2   drachms.      Mix   thoroughly   and   apply   to 
sores. 


226  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Cause  of  "Loss  of  Cud." 

About  three  months  ago  a  pure-bred  Jersey  commenced  to  fail  on 
her  milk  and  soon  zvent  dry,  although  on  good  feed.  Did  not  seem  to 
be  sick,  but  did  not  eat  ravenously  as  she  generally  did,  and  little  was 
thought  of  it.  During  the  past  six  zveeks  she  has  failed  rapidly.  Does 
not  chew  her  cud,  froths  at  the  mouth,  runs  at  the  eyes,  and  when  she 
eats  anything  much  it  bloats  her.  In  fact,  she  seems  bloated  all  the 
time.  She  is  lifeless  and  zvill  hardly  move  around,  getting  very  thin, 
and  hair  standing  the  wrong  way.  Is  there  such  a  thing  as  a  cow  losing 
her  cud? 

Most  people  imagine  a  cow's  cud  is  something  material.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  in  a  certain  sense  the  words  appetite  and  cud  are 
synonym.ous.  You  can  say  a  cow  has  lost  her  appetite  or  a  cow  has 
lost  her  cud.  Now,  any  sickness  severe  enough  will  cause  a  cow  to 
lose  her  appetite.  The  bloating  is  caused  from  indigestion  secondary 
to  some  organic  disease,  probably  tuberculosis.  Keep  up  the  cow's 
strength  by  giving  condensed  foods  or  drenches  of  egg-nogg_,  gruel 
or  greens.  Give  warm  salt-water  injections  twice  daily  and  give  the 
following  mixture:  Quinine  sulphate,  2  ounces;  Antipyrine,  1  ounce; 
ammonia  muriate,  3  ounces;  alcohol.  1  quart;  water  1  quart.  Mix; 
give  2  ounces  every  four  hours. 

Calf   Dysentery. 

/  zvould  like  to  knozv  the  reason  for  bloody  discharges  front  the 
bozvels  of  a  young  six-day-old  calf.  There  is  a  looseness  of  the  bowels 
and  the  blood  is  intermingled  zvith  the  excrement.  There  is  not  a  profuse 
amount  of  blood,  nor  is  it  very  dark  in  color,  and  it  seems  to  be  accom- 
panied zvith  mucus  or  light,  thick  substance. 

This  is  dysentery,  due  to  scours  so  prevalent  in  calves.  Give 
6  ounces  olive  oil,  4  drachms  bismuth  subnitrate  and  1  drachm  Pear- 
son's   creoline.     The   discharge   is   very   dangerous    to   other   animals. 

Bovine  Rheumatism. 

Our  Jersey  cow  got  somewhat  lame  one  year  ago  in  one  hip  or  leg 
after  calving  but  soon  got  better.  Last  June  when  she  came  in  one 
leg  was  lame.  It  seems  to  be  in  the  stiifle  joint  and  the  first  one  above. 
When  she  zmlks  she  gets  real  lame. 

Rheumatism  is  the  trouble  here.  Give  the  following  powder: 
Soda  salic3date,  3  ounces;  salol,  2  ounces;  pulv.  gentian  root,  2  ounces. 
Mix  and  make  24  powders.  Give  four  dail3^  Apply  Pratt's,  a  good 
veterinary   liniment. 

Bleeding  for  Blackleg. 

/  have  read  several  articles  on  blackleg,  and  it  seems  strange  to  me 
that  no  mention  is  made  of  an  operation  that  is  an  absolute  preventive, 
namely,  bleeding  in  the  feet. 


Diseases  of  Animals  227 

The  reason  that  no  special  mention  of  bleeding  is  made  is  that 
it  is  not  now  considered  the  preventive  that  it  once  was.  Some 
people  appear  to  have  fair  success  with  it,  and  others  no  success  at 
all.  The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  states  that  the  evidence  in- 
dicates that  bleeding,  nerving,  roweling  or  setoning  have  neither 
curative  nor  protective  value  and,  therefore,  should  be  discarded  for 
vaccination  which  is  now  widely  used  as  a  preventive. 

Poor  Feeding,  Depraved  Appetite. 

/  have  three  cows.  They  have  been  fed  alfalfa  hay  all  zvinter  and 
are  in  very  good  condition  and  seem  otherwise  in  good  health,  and  have 
salt  to  run  to.  Every  time  they  chance  to  come  to  the  yard  they  will 
pick  up  an  old  bone  and  chetv  it  for  perhaps  a  half  hour.  I  alzvays  take 
the  bone  aivay  from  them  zvhen  I  discover  it. 

These  cows  have  a  depraved  appetite,  owing  to  the  fact  the 
tissues  of  the  body  are  crying  out  for  something  lacking  that  is  re- 
quired in  the  S5fstem.  Administer  the  following  powder;  also  put 
a  lump  of  lime  in  the  watering  trough:  Pulv.  gentian,  1  ounce; 
pulv.  elm  bark,  2  ounces;  pulv.  iron  sulphate,  1  ounce;  pulv.  bicarb, 
soda,  4  ounces;  pulv.  aniseed,  2  ounces;  pulv.  red  pepper  ^  ounce; 
pulv.  oilcake  meal  10  pounds.  Mix  thoroughly  and  give  a  table- 
spoonful  in  scalded  grain   once  daily. 

Cows  Swallowing  Foreign  Substances. 

We  recently  lost  a  valuable  cow,  and  when  zve  opened  her  we  found 
a  large  tumor  or  abscess  at  the  top  of  the  heart  as  large  as  a  gallon  jar. 
What  caused  it,  or  is  there  any  danger  of  other  cozvs  taking  it,  and  if 
so,  what  can  we  do? 

This  is  a  common  disease  among  cows  and  is  called  traumatic 
pericarditis.  The  trouble  ari.^es  from  the  habit  of  the  cows  picking 
up  foreign  substances  such  as  wire,  nails,  or  hairpins,  and  swallow- 
ing them.  Thej^  are  taken  into  the  paunch  and  the  digestive  move- 
ments of  this  organ  cause  the  foreign  body  to  penetrate  the  lining 
and  enter  the  heart,  where  it  gradually  causes  death  as  it  enters 
deeper.  It  is  very  common  to  find  nails,  etc.,  in  the  stomachs  of  old 
dairy  cows  which  are  killed  at  the  slaughter-houses.  If  you  had 
examined  the  animal  carefully,  you  would  find  that  some  foreign 
body  had  penetrated  the  heart  and  caused  death.  There  is  no  danger 
of  any  contagion  arising  from  your  cow. 

Defective  Urination. 

/  have  a  cow  that  seems  to  be  in  good  health  and  gives  plenty  of 
milk.  Nearly  every  morning  when  she  is  being  milked  she  seems  to 
want  to  urinate  and  zvill  stand  letting  the  water  drip  from  her. 

This  trouble  often  results  from  the  cows  eating  alkaline  hay. 
Give  her  two  quarts  of  flaxseed  tea  daily.  Mix  it  with  her  food  in 
which  there  has  been  placed  one-half  teaspoon  of  powdered  Buchu. 


228  One  Thousanp  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Infectious  Conjunctivitis   (Sore  Eyes). 

/  have  several  cozvs  and  heifers  that  are  affected  with  sore  eyes. 
The  disease  first  makes  its  appearance  by  excessive  watering  of  the  eyes; 
then  the  center  or  pupil  becomes  zvhite  and  later  turns  red  of  bloodshot. 

Bathe  thoroughly  with  the  normal  salt  solution  (teaspoon  salt 
to  1  pint  warm  water),  after  which  place  in  the  eye  and  all  around 
the  mucuous  membrane  of  the  eye  the  following:  Twenty-five  per 
cent  solution  of  argyrol,  one-half  ounce;  apply  thoroughly  once  daily 
and  keep  out  of  the  sunlight  if  possible.  Another  treatment  is: 
Bathe  the  eyes  once  daily  with  boracic  acid  1  teaspoon,  water  1 
pint,  after  which  thoroughly  saturate  the  eyelids  and  eyes  with  1 
to  10,000  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury.  You  are  dealing  with 
a  disease  that  will  spread  throughout  your  herd  if  you  do  not  take 
proper  means  to  separate  the  afiFected  from  the   well  ones. 

What  to  Do  Against  Tuberculous  Milk. 

/  should  like  to  know  zvhat  ccvld  be  done  zvith  a  dnirv  zvhere  cows 
are  dying  with  tuberculosis  and  the  ozvner  knozvs,  but  is  selling  the  milk. 

The  case  should  be  reported  to  F.  W.  Andreason,  Secretary  of 
the  State  Dairy  Bureau,  at  San  Francisco,  for  investigation  by  an 
inspector.  If  conditions  are  found  as  represented,  the  sale  of  milk 
will  be  prevented,  as  it  is  contrary  to  State  law  to  sell  milk  from 
sick  cows.  County  boards  of  health  have  also  authority  to  prevent 
the  sale  of  such  milk  in  the  county  on  the  ground  that  this  is  a 
menace  to  the  public  health. 

Effects  of  Ill-Feeding  Pigs. 

7  have  a  couple  of  pigs,  out  of  about  7S  head  farrozved  last  spring, 
ivhich  seem  to  have  the  staggers.  They  are  looking  fairly  zvell,  feed  zvell 
on  pasture  and  at  feeding  time  are  right  there  making  as  much  noise 
as  the  others.     They  run  around  as  if  they  had  a  shot  too  much. 

Your  pigs  are  suffering  from  acute  indigestion,  undoubtedly 
due  to  improper  feeding.  Cut  down  the  rations,  especially  if  they 
are  getting  grain.  Give  sick  pigs  two  tablespoonfuls  of  castor  oil 
each. 

Sore  Eyes  in  Pigs. 

What  is  the  matter  zvith.  young  pigs  when  their  eyes  szvell  shut? 
Before  they  shut  they  look  as  if  there  zvas  a  zvhite  milky  scum  over 
them. 

There  is  some  infection  present,  and  a  good  cleaning  up_  is 
needed.  The  sows  and  pigs  should  be  dipped  in  a  warm  solution 
of  some  coal-tar  disinfectant,  and  the  quarters  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  disinfected  or  changed  to  a  dry  warm  place.  The  pigs'  eyes 
should  be  washed  with  warm  water  and  a  few  drops  of  the  follow- 
ing solution  dropped  into  eyes  once  a  day  for  a  few  days:  Have 
druggist    prepare    a    1     per    cent    solution    of    silver    nitrate.      After 


Diseases  of  Animals  229 

applying    this    the    eyes    had    better    be    washed    a    few    minutes    later 
with   water   to   which   a   little   common   salt   has   been   added. 

Hog  Cholera. 

/  have  a  nioiibcr  of  pigs  which  have  been  ailing  for  three  weeks  or 
so.  They  discharge  a  yellowish  kind  of  manure  at  times,  running  of 
the  bozvels.  The  most  striking  syi}ilyto)n  seems  to  be  a  partial  paralysis 
of  the  hindquarters.  The  hogs  will  be  ivalking  along  and  seem  to  lose 
control  of  their  hing  legs.  It  seems  to  be  spreading  to  the  other  hogs 
and  a  number  have  already  died.     Their  appetite  is  poor. 

This  is  undoubtedly  hog  cholera.  The  owner  should  appeal  to 
the  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley  for  serum  and  treat  all  well 
hogs  and  clean  up  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  The  matter  should 
also  be  reported  to  the  State  Veterinarian  at  Sacramento. 

Pneumonia  in  Pigs. 

What  is  the  disease  zvhich  may  be  said  to  confine  itself,  with  few 
exceptions,  to  young  pigs  weighing  wo  pounds  or  less/  Its  symptoms  are  at 
first  sneezing  and  a  mild  cough.  These  quickly  cliange  to  hard  cough- 
ing and  labored  breathing,  which  as  the  disease  progresses  shoivs  evi- 
dence of  much  pain.  The  appetite  is  lost  and  the  eyes  become  gummed 
and  infiamed.  In  some  cases  the  pig  lingers  on  for  weeks,  while  in  others 
death  occurs  almost  immediately.     Vomiting  sometimes  occurs. 

It  is  pneumonia  and  in  its  treatment  "an  ounce  of  prevention 
is  worth  a  pound  of  cure."  Once  pneumonia  gets  a  foothold  in  a 
hog,  the  chances  are  so  strongly  in  favor  of  death  that  recovery 
may  be  considered  out  of  the  question.  Since  remedies  are  not  cer- 
tain in  the  cure  of  pneumonia,  it  will  be  found  that  the  prevention 
of  the  disease  is  the  only  real  way  to  combat  it.  The  main  causes 
of  the  disease  are  exposure  to  draughts,  sudden  changes  in  tempera- 
ture, damp  beds,  manure  heaps  as  sleeping  quarters,  and  exposure 
to  the  disease  itself.  Pigs  in  thin  condition  or  weak  constitutionally 
are  more  liable  to  contract  the  trouble  than  pigs  in  good  flesh  and 
healthy  specimens.  Good,  dry,  warm,  comfortable  sleeping  houses, 
well  ventilated  and  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  crowding  and  piling 
up,  will,  I  think,  do  more  to  prevent  pneumonia  than  any  other  one 
thing.  Some  such  preparation  as  advocated  by  the  Government  for 
the  prevention  of  hog  cholera  will  help  keep  the  stock  in  a  good 
healthy  condition,  the  better  to  combat  exposure.  It  is  the  little 
attentions  that  keep  the  herd  healthy  and  in  a  vigorous  condition, 
and  by  using  simple  preventatives,  remedies  will  be  found  unneces- 
sary.— H.    B.    Wintringham. 

General  Prescription  for  Hog  Sickness. 

My  hogs  seem  to  be  mangy  and  scabby,  but  atn  unable  to  find  any 
lice  on  them.  They  eat  tvell,  but  vomit  a  good  deal  and  are  falling  off 
in  fiesh. 


230  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

They  may  be  affected  with  a  chronic  type  of  cholera,  and  this 
should  be  determined  by  some  one  who  can  see  the  hogs.  Make  a 
general  cleaning  up  of  the  hogs  and  quarters,  using  a  dip  and  re- 
peating in  ten  days.  Hogs  have  a  true  mange  as  well  as  other 
animals.  A  change  of  feed  may  also  be  needed,  depending  on  what 
is  being  fed  and  how  the  hogs  are  managed.  Green  alfalfa  pasture 
with  a  moderate  feed  of  shorts  or  middlings  of  wheat  and  ground 
barley  made  into  a  slop  would  be  a  good  ration.  Evidently  there 
is  some  digestive  trouble  here,  and  a  dose  of  croton  oil  (3  drops) 
mixed  in  a  teaspoonful  of  raw  linseed  oil  for  each  hog  would  be 
beneficial.  Charcoal,  ashes,  salt  and  a  little  epsom  salts  would  be 
of  benefit  to  tone  the  digestion.  The  oil  should  be  carefully  mixed 
in  the  slop. 

Pigs   Out  of  Condition. 

Of  a  litter  of  pigs  weaned  about  a  month  several  of  them  have  itchy 
scabs  on  their  legs,  cars  and  noses,  and  those  hainng  white  feet  show 
reddish  spots  through  the  hoofs.  They  did  not  get  it  until  after  they 
were  weaned.  They  are  fed  on  soaked  whole  barley  and  have  alfalfa 
pasture. 

Put  the  pigs  on  a  slop  composed  of  wheat  middlings  and  barley 
ground  fine,  with  the  hulls  removed,  and  milk,  or,  in  the  absence 
of  milk  about  8  or  10  per  cent  of  meat  meal  to  which  add  some  good 
stock  food.  Dip  them  with  some  standard  brand  of  dip  or  apply 
crude  oil  to  be  sure  that  they  were  free  from  lice,  fleas,  etc.  Give 
them  good,  clean,  comfortable  sleeping  quarters  and  trust  to  nature 
to  do  the  rest. 

Paralysis  of   Sow. 

During  the  last  few  days  one  of  my  sows  appears  to  be  paralysed  in 
her  hind  quarters  and  now  cannot  use  her  hind  legs  at  all.  She  is  about 
a  year  old  and  is  due  to  farrow  her  first  litter  in  and  about  six  weeks. 

It  is  paralysis  due  to  advanced  pregnancy.  Give  4  ounces  castor 
oil  and  4  ounces  olive  oil.     She  will  recover  after  parturition. 

Rickets  in  Hogs. 

A  fine  boar,  i6  months  old,  weight  about  380  pounds,  well  built,  with 
little  surplus  fat,  until  lately  has  been  very  thrifty,  but  appears  to  be 
losing  control  over  his  legs.  Can't  step  over  the  smallest  stick  without 
falling  forward  and  acts  like  a  foundered  animal.  He  carries  his  back 
rather  arching  since  this  trouble  came  on.  During  my  absence  from  home 
a  hired  man  gave  this  boar  a  good  beating  ivith  a  pick  handle,  and  it 
appears  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  his  troubles. 

This  disease  is  Osteo  Rachitis  (rickets).  The  abuse  has  prob- 
ably aggravated  the  symptoms.  This  condition  is  due  to  a  lack  of 
hardening  principles  in  the  bones.  Give  4  ounces  of  cod  liver  oil 
daily  and  plenty  of  lime  water  to  drink.  It  will  be  all  right  to 
use  him  for  breeding  when  he  recovers.  In  addition  to  good  food 
and  pure  water  give  daily  a  handful  of  a  mi.xture  of  principally 
ashes  and  burned   barley    (charcoal)    with   the  usual  addition  of  salt, 


Diseases  of  Animals  231 

sulphur  and  soda.  This  mixture  is  good:  Pulv.  dried  iron  sulphate, 
4  ounces;  soda  bi-carbonate.  8  ounces;  soda  salicylate,  2  drachms; 
pulv.  aniseed,  4  ounces.  Mix  and  give  one-half  teaspoonful  twice 
daily. 

Pigs  Losing  Tails. 

We  have  five  pigs,  17  days  old,  a>id  zvhcn  they  were  farrowed  they 
had  rings  around  the  roots  of  their  tails,  and  nozv  their  tails  are  dropping 
off. 

This  is  caused  by  interference  with  circulation  before  birth. 
Apply  tinct.  iodine  around  the  affected  parts  once  daily  and  if  it 
shows  no  signs  of  improvement  after  one  week  amputate. 

Over-Fat    Sow. 

My  brood  sow  is  awfully  fat;  hoiv  should  I  feed  her  so  that  she 
don't  get  too  fat?  She  is  bred  and  it  zinll  be  her  third  litter.  She  was 
runtting  in  the  vineyard  all  winter,  and  1  fed  her  a  handful  of  barley  every 
day  or  a  few  potatoes.  Now  she  has  free  access  to  my  groiving  barley 
Held,  and  I  give  her  half  a  dozen  potatoes  every  day. 

You  need  not  worry  about  getting  her  thin.  She  simply  re- 
quires less  food.  An  animal  excessively  fat  brings  forth  an  inferior 
offspring. 

Musty  Corn  for  Pigs. 

Would  Egyptian  corn  that  has  been  musty  and  then  dried  in  the 
sun  be  fit  for  pigs?  It  heated  and  musted  quite  a  good  deal,  but  is 
dried  well.     The  idea  is  to  grind  it  and  then  feed  it  in  milk  if  good. 

It  is  very  dangerous  to  feed  any  stock  moldy  or  musty  food, 
especially  pregnant  animals.  It  is  this  kind  of  food  which  causes 
a  majority  of  the  abortions.  Mold  or  smut  in  food  is  poisonous 
both  to  man  and  beast.  It  is  usually  almost  impossible  to  get  out 
of  feed  because  it  runs  throughout  the  structure  of  the  hay  or  grain. 

Wounds   and   Wound    Swellings. 

What  is  the  proper  treatment  for  a  fresh  wire  cut  on  a  horse?  How 
should  saddle  galls  be  treated?  Is  there  any  way  to  make  the  hair  come 
in  its  natura.1  color  where  saddle  galls  have  been?  How  can  an  enlarge- 
ment of  a  colt's  leg,  caused  from  a  zvire  cut,  be  reduced? 

After  all  foreign  matter  has  been  removed  from  a  lacerated 
wound,  like  that  made  in  a  wire  cut,  the  wound  should  be  carefully 
fomented  with  warm  water,  to  which  has  been  added  carbolic  acid 
in  the  proportion  of  1  part  to  100  of  water.  It  should  then  be  ban- 
daged to  prevent  infection.  Zinc  ointment  would  be  a  good  thing 
to  use  under  the  bandage.  For  a  simple  saddle,  or  harness  gall, 
some  ointmient  like  the  follov.ing  should  be  applied  and  the  wound 
rested  up:  One  pint  alcohol  in  which  are  shaken  the  whites  of  2 
eggs;  a  soution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  10  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water; 
sugar  of  lead  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  20  grains  to  an  ounce  of  water; 
and   so   on.      Or   advertised   gall    cures   may  be   applied.      If  a   sitfest 


232  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

has  developed,  the  dead  hornlike  slough  must  be  cut  out  and  the 
wound  treated  with  antiseptics.  There  is  no  way  we  know  of  to 
make  hair  come  in  with  natural  color  after  a  wound.  The  swelling 
on  the  colt's  leg  may  be  reduced  by  rubbing  it  well  several  times 
a  day  and  at  night  rub  in  some   10  per  cent  iodine  petrogen. 

Fly  Repellants. 

Can  you  tell  me  luhat  to  use  as  a  spray  to  kill  the  Hies  in  my  stable? 
In  the  early  morning  the  ceiling  and  sides  are  thickly  covered  with  the 
pests  partly  dormant  but  not  enough  so  that  they  can  be  swept  down  and 
killed.     What  spray  can  I  use  that  will  destroy  them? 

It  is  difficult  to  kill  flies  by  spraying  them.  You  can,  however, 
spray  the  sides  and  ceiling  of  the  barn  with  a  spray  of  epsom  salts 
(sulphate  of  magnesia)  using  about  a  cupful  to  the  gallon,  which 
will  prevent  them  from  gathering  there.  And  since  prevention  is 
better  than  cure,  flies  can  be  kept  from  gathering  around  by  de- 
stroying their  breeding  places,  if  those  are  under  one's  control, 
by  having  all  manure  and  litter  removed  before  the  flies  have  a 
chance  to  develop.  The  following  may  be  found  useful  to  readers 
as  a  spray  to  keep  away  flies:  Fish  oil,  2  quarts;  kerosene,  1  quart; 
crude  carbolic  acid,  1  pinr;  oil  of  pennyroyal,  1  ounce;  oil  of  tar, 
10  ounces.  Mix  thoroughly  and  apply  in  a  fine  spray.  The  following 
has  been  successfully  used  to  repel  flies  from  cows:  Nitro  benzine, 
5  ounces;  carbolic  acid,  3  ounces;  kerosene  oil,  3  ounces;  sol.  formal- 
dehyde, 1  ounce;  fish  oil,  V/2  quarts.  Mix  and  just  touch  the  hair 
with   the   mixture. 

To  Destroy  Fleas. 

My  barn  is  full  of  fleas.  I  tried  to  destroy  them  by  using  creso-dip, 
but  did  not  kill  them  all. 

Fleas  can  only  be  permanently  checked  by  destroying  their 
breeding  places  which  are  in  the  dust  and  dirt  that  accumulate  in 
cracks  and  corners  around  barns,  sheds  and  dwellings.  Follow  the 
cleaninq-  up  with  a  thorough  distribution  of  flake  naphthalene.  This 
is  most  effective  where  the  stable  or  room  can  be  closed  tight  for 
half  a  day,  or  even  24  hours.  An  ingenious  suggestion  is  made  that 
if  a  sheep  can  be  let  run  in  and  around  the  buildings  where  the 
fleas  breed,  they  will  soon  be  less  numerous  and  as  new  batches 
hatch  out  the  sheep  will  soon  get  them  picked  up,  and  after  a  while 
the  place  will  be  entirely  free  of  them.  But  the  sheep  must  be 
allowed  to  run  all  around  the  sheds  and  breeding  places,  as  the  flea 
jumps  up,  gets  into  the  wool,  and  can  never  get  out  again.  A  hog 
can  also  be  used  as  a  flea  trap.  One  reader  says:  Pour  a  little  of 
the  crude  oil  on  the  hogs'  heads  and  along  their  backs,  about  a  gill 
on  each  hog.  This  would  run  down  the  sides  of  the  hogs  and  kill  all 
the  fleas  on  them.  The  oil  also  remains  on  the  hogs  for  several 
days,  and  all  the  fleas  that  jump  on  the  hogs  from  the  ground  stick 
fast  and  never  jump  off  again.  In  about  three  weeks  the  fleas  all 
disappear  and  the  hogs  look  fine  and  sleek  from  the  use  of  the  oil. 


PART  VIII.    POULTRY  KEEPING* 


Teaching  Chicks  to   Perch. 

What  is  a  good  method  of  breaking  in  young  brooder  chicks  to  use 
the  roosts? 

At  from  six  to  eight  weeks  old  the  chicks  should  be  taken  from 
the  brooder  quarters  to  the  colony  houses  and  range,  or  wherever 
they  are  to  be  located,  and  at  this  time  they  should  be  taught  to 
perch.  Have  the  new  quarters  arranged  with  low  wide  perches  (1 
by  3-inch  scantlings);  also  make  slatted  frames  by  nailing  lath  or 
other  such  narrow  strips  two  inches  apart.  Set  these  frames  against 
the  wall  so  that  they  will  extend  slant-wise  under  the  perches,  and 
have  the  corners  on  the  other  side  of  the  room  cut  off  by  nailing 
boards  across  them.  The  chicks  will  run  up  on  the  frame  to  find 
a  huddling  corner  and  land  on  the  perches,  as  they  cannot  rest  on 
the  open  slanting  frame.  A  little  care  for  a  few  evenings  in  putting 
up  those  that  remain  on  the  floor  and  straightening  them  out  on  the 
perches  will  teach  them  the  ropes.  Where  there  are  but  a  few  to 
be  taught,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  provide  the  low  wide  perches 
and  shut  out  the  corners,  and  a  few  of  the  smart  ones  will  soon  take 
to  the  perches,  and  gradually  others  will  follow  until  all  will  be 
roosting. 

Liver    Disease. 

/  haz'e  hens  which  seem  well  in  every  respect  up  to  the  time  of  their 
combs  changing  color,  zvhen  they  die  zifithin  three  days.  The  combs  turn 
a  faint  yellozv,  almost  white;  they  are  heavy,  have  their  usual  appetite 
up  to  the  last  24  hours.  I  have  treated  by  giving  small  doses  of  castor 
oil  and  Douglas  mi.rture  in  the  drinking  zx'ater,  feeding  on  dry  mash  ztnth 
plenty  of  green  feed.  There  is  no  tendency  to  lameness  nor  limp  neck. 
The  droppings  are  loose  and  very  white. 

The  fowls  were  victims  of  jaundice,  which  is  a  form  of  liver 
disease  and  caused  by  over-feeding  on  rich  starchy  foods  that  also 
cause  fowls  to  become  overfat.  However,  at  the  end  of  the  laying 
season  and  the  beginning  of  the  molt  the  poultry  keeper  will  lose 
some  hens,  even  when  kept  under  the  best  conditions,  and  especially 
hens  of  that  age.  In  doctoring  such  cases  in  the  way  described,  if 
the  fowl  does  not  improve  in  a  couple  of  days,  the  hatchet  cure  is 
the   most   profitable. 


*Largely  compiled  from  the  writings  of  Mrs.  W.  Russell  James  and 
Mrs.  Susan  Swapgood. 


234  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculturi 

Rupture  of  Oviduct. 

/  have  had  tzvo  other  hens  die  suddenly  when  on  the  nest.  The  second 
one  zve  opened  and  found  one  egg  broken  near  the  vent  and  another  wxth 
shell  formed  ready  to  be  laid. 

Rupture  of  the  oviduct  was  probably  the  cause  of  the  hens  dying 
on  the  nest  and  is  due  to  the  same  condition  in  the  hens;  that  is, 
the  straining  to  expel  the  egg  necessary  in  the  engorged  condition 
of  the  internal  organs  from  overfatness. 

Melons  for  Fowls. 

Have  "stock  melons"  or  "citrons"  any  merit  as  a  green  food  for 
laying  hens?    Are  the  seeds  of  the  above  injurious  to  hens  or  cows? 

Stock  melons  are  desirable  for  chicken  feeding  if  other  succulent 
materials  are  scarce,  but  they  are  inferior  to  alfalfa  and  other  clovers. 
Seeds  are  not  injurious  to  stock  unless  possibly  one  should  feed  to 
excess  by  separating  them  from  the  other  tissues.  If  melons  are 
fed  as  they  grow,  no  apprehension  need  be  had  from  injury  by  seed. 

Rape  and  Vetch  for  Chickens. 

What  time  do  you  sozv  rape  and  vetch  and  are  they  good  for  chickens? 

They  surely  are  good  for  chickens  or  for  any  other  stock  that 
likes  greens.  They  are  winter  growers  in  California  valleys  and 
should  be  sown  in  the  fall  as  soon  as  the  land  is  moist  enough  to 
keep  them  growing,  or  just  as  soon  as  you  can  get  it  moist  either 
by  rainfall  or  irrigation.     Neither  plant  likes  dry  heat  or  dry  soil. 

Preserving  Eggs. 

What  is  a  good  way  to  preserve  eggs  for  home  use? 

In  a  cool  cellar,  eggs  will  keep  very  well  in  a  mixture  of  common 
salt  and  bran.  Use  equal  parts,  mix  well,  and  as  you  gather  the 
eggs  from  day  to  day  pack  with  big  end  down  in  the  mixture  and 
see  that  the  eggs  are  covered.  Waterglass  eggs  are  good  enough  for 
cooking  purposes,  but  when  boiled  anyone  that  knows  the  taste  of 
a  strictly  fresh  egg  can  tell  the  difference  in  an  instant;  when  fried 
the  taste  is  not  so  pronounced,  but  it  is  there  just  the  same;  besides, 
when  broken,  they  are  a  little  watery.  This  watery  condition  passes 
off  if  left  to  stand  for  a  few  minutes.  The  best  way  is  to  use  the 
waterglass  method,  is  one  quart  of  waterglass  to  ten  quarts  of  water. 
Boil  the  water  and  put  away  to  cool,  when  cold  add  the  waterglass, 
mixing  well,  and  store  in  3  or  5-gallon  crocks  in  a  cool  place.  Thej 
will  keep  six  months  if  good  when  put  in.  In  all  cases  the  eggs 
must  be  gathered  very  fresh,  for  one  stale  egg  will  spoil  the  whole 
lot,  so  great  care  is  needed. 

Dipping  Fowls. 

Hoiv  do  you  dip  hens  to  kill  lice? 

To  dip  fowls  you  must  have  a  very  warm  day,  or  a  warm  room 
where   you   can   turn    them   in   to   dry.      I    have   know   people   to   use 


Poultry  Keeping  235 

tobacco  stems,  but  it  requires  good  judgment  as  to  the  right  strength 
to  use.  The  dips  usually  sold  already  prepared  are  safer,  in  my 
opinion,  because  they  give  directions  as  to  quantity.  Get  a  can 
of  "zenoleum"  or  "creolium" — either  is  good — and  have  the  water 
a  little  over  blood-heat  to  commence;  be  very  careful  that  the  liquid 
does  not  get  in  the  fowl's  throat.  If  there  are  no  directions  with  the 
cans,  put  enough  in  to  make  the  water  quite  milky  and  strong  smell- 
ing. It  is  best  to  make  the  hen  sit  down  and  with  a  sponge  wet  the 
back  and  head  thoroughly,  then  under  the  wings  and  breast;  if  there 
are  nits,  don't  be  in  a  hurry  to  take  the  hen  out,  but  let  the  dip  get 
to  the  nits  and  skin  on  the  abdomen.  If  the  water  is  too  warm  it 
will  be  dangerous,  as  some  fowls  have  weak  hearts;  that  is  the  only 
danger,   providing  you  dry  them   quickly. 

Cure  for  Feather-Eating. 

What  is  the  cure  for  feather-eating? 

Feather  eating  is  the  result  of  idleness  or  a  shortage  of  green 
feed.  The  best  way  to  cure  it  is  to  furnish  the  fowls  with  exercise. 
Boil  some  oats  until  soft,  and  when  cooked  stir  in  salt  enough  to 
taste  and  about  a  quart  of  good  beef  scrap;  feed  this  for  breakfast 
several  mornings  together.  Make  them  scratch  for  the  rest  of  their 
food  in  deep  litter  and  give  them  sour  milk  to  drink  if  you  have  it. 
If  sour  milk  is  not  available,  put  a  tablespoonful  of  flowers  of  sulphur 
in  the  boiled  oats.  The  object  is  to  cool  the  blood  and  furnish 
exercise.  See  that  the  fowls  are  supplied  with  mineral  matter,  such 
ash  shells,  bone  meal  and  some  sand  if  it  can  be  had.  It  is  sur- 
prising the  amount  of  sand  that  chickens  will  eat  when  carried  to 
them  in  yards,  so  there  must  be  a  necessity  for  it,  and  if  they  cannot 
get  to  it,  it  pays  to  carry  a  good  box  full  once  in  a  while. 

Cannibal  Chicks. 

What  can  I  do  to  cure  my  chicks  of  eating  each  other? 

Some  kind  of  animal  food  is  necessary  when  the  chicks  begin  to 
pick  toes,  wings  and  vents.  But  the  meat  must  always  be  cooked, 
the  least  bit  of  raw  meat  drives  them  wild  as  does  the  blood  they 
can  bring  on  each  other.  For  that  reason  a  strict  watch  must  be 
kept  to  detect  any  case  before  blood  is  brought.  Remove  all  weak 
chicks  as  they  always  go  for  the  weakest,  and  as  soon  as  one 
chick  is  picked  on  for  a  victim,  remove  it  at  once.  Some  people  paint 
the  toes  with  tar  or  liquid  lice  paint,  but  I  have  had  the  best  succe.-^s 
with  bitter  aloes  mixed  with  water.  ./\.  nickel's  worth  covers  a  lot 
of  toes.  It  is  best  to  buy  a  powder,  then  dissolve  in  a  little  water 
and  paint  wings,  vent  and  toes.  They  won't  take  many  pecks  at 
them  when  they  find  they  are  so  bitter. 

Sunflower  Seeds  for  Poultry. 
What  is  the  food  value  of  smitlozvcr  seed  as  a  ration  for  fowls,  mostly 
laying  hens?    Should  it  be  fed  whole  or  crushed? 


236  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

Sunflower  seed  is  rich  in  oil,  having  the  same  proportion  as 
flaxseed;  otherwise  it  rates  in  value  the  same  as  grain.  A  little,  not 
too  much,  fed  whole  is  well  relished  by  fowls  and  is  said  to  give 
luster  to  the  plumage  in  fitting  birds  for  shows.  Sunflower  is  greatly- 
overrated  for  poultry  purposes.  It  is  an  ungainly  plant  of  no  use 
for  forage  and  its  seed  is  so  well  liked  by  the  sparrows  that  the  only 
way  to  keep  them  till  ripe  is  to  cover  the  heads  with  netting. 

Clipping  Hens  for  Cleanliness. 

My  hens  fotil  all  the  fe.ithers  hclow  the  vent ;  they  appear  Iiealthy,  but 
do  not  look  nice.     What  can  I  do? 

Take  a  pair  of  scissors  and  clip  the  fluff  away  from  that  part 
of  the  abdomen,  give  a  teaspoonful  of  olive  oil,  and  notice  of  they 
have  any  discharge  that  is  of  an  offensive  color  or  odor.  Sometimes 
it  is  nothing  but  pure  laziness  with  hens  of  the  large  breeds  that 
causes  this  matting  together  of  the  fluff  below  the  vent.  We  rarely 
see  hens  of  the  small  breeds  so  afifected.  Whenever  a  hen  soils  her 
feathers  clip  her  at  once,  and,  in  fact,  it  is  a  good  custom  to  follow 
in  any  case.  When  hens  are  very  heavily  fluffed  it  interferes  with 
the  fertility  of  the  eggs.  In  such  cases  there  is  not  anything  for  it 
but  the  scissors.  _         .    „  ,      .      „,  .  , 

Bov/el  Trouble  in   Chicks, 

What  is  the  cause  of  boivel  trouble  in  young  chicks,  and  what  to  do 
for  it? 

Bowel  trouble  in  very  young  chicks  is  usually  caused  by  a  chill. 
It  is  very  hard  for  us  here  to  believe  chicks  get  chilled  because,  not 
feeling  the  cold  ourselves,  we  forget  that  chicks  have  really  under- 
gone a  violent  change  from  incubator  to  the  outside  atmosphere. 
In  the  Eastern  States,  great  care  is  exercised  in  moving  chicks  from 
incubator  to  brooder  oven,  and  also  in  seeing  that  the  brooder  itself 
is  warm  and  fit  to  receive  the  chicks.  But  we  are,  as  a  rule,  very 
careless  in  these  little  matters  and  the  chicks  feel  the  change  and 
suffer  from  bowel  trouble.  Sometimes,  of  course,  the  trouble  may 
be  traced  to  the  food,  but  more  often  it  comes  from  a  chill.  The 
best  way  to  cure  it  is  to  remove  the  chicks  to  new  ground  at  once, 
or  if  in  a  brooder,  clean  it  out  well  and  spray  v/ith  some  disinfectant. 
Boil  all  the  water  that  is  given  to  the  chicks  and  feed  boiled  rice 
once  or  twice  a  day  in  which  a  little  cinnamon  is  mixed.  Do  not 
put  in  too  much  or  they  will  not  eat  it,  keep  all  meat  away  and  just 
feed  dry  chick  feed  and  boiled  rice.  No  oatmeal  or  any  other  cereal 
but  the  rice;  if  chicks  won't  eat  it,  feed  dry  chick  feed  and  boiled 
water  and  a  little  lettuce. 

Quick  Roosters  and  Laying  Hens. 

Hoiv  can  I  get  the  young  roosters  off  quick  and  the  hens  to  lay  in 
winter? 

These  two  happy  results  come  from  correct  methods  of  poultry 
keeping  from  the  ground  up.  To  get  the  cockerels  off  quick,  they 
must   be   hatched   from    strong-germed    eggs,   incubated    properly   and 


Poultry  Keeping  237 

kept  growing  from  the  first  jump  out  of  the  shell.  To  get  eggs  in 
winter  the  pullets  must  come  from  the  same  conditions.  Very  few 
hens  will  lay  in  the  early  winter  under  any  conditions.  The  pullets 
must  be  depended  upon  for  that  season  and  the  hens  kept  properly 
will   drop  in   some   time   in   January. 

Poultry  Tonic. 

What  is  a  good  poultry  tollies' 

The  following  is  a  very  good  tonic  for  gt-neral  purposes:  Tinc- 
ture of  red  cinchona,  1  fluid  ounce;  tincture  of  chloride  of  iron,  1 
fluid  drachm;  tincture  of  nux  vomica,  4  fluid  drachms;  glycerine  2 
ounces;  water,  2  ounces.  Mix  and  give  one  teaspoonful  to  a  quart  of 
water,  allowing  no   other  drink. 

Poultry  in  the   Orchard. 

Kindly  adzisc  nic  about  keeping  hens  in  an  orchard.  I  would  like 
to  know  if  they  ivill  injure  the  trees  in  any  way  if  kept  in  large  numbers. 
In  zvhat  luay  would  they  benefit  the  trees? 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  trees  there  is  no  doubt  that  they 
would  be  advantaged  by  the  presence  of  the  poultry,  providing  the 
coops  are  not  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  proper  irrigation  and 
cultivation.  If  it  is  practicable  to  handle  the  fowls  in  coops  without 
causing  the  soil  around  the  coops  to  become  compacted  by  continual 
tramping,  and  if  they  are  not  kept  upon  the  ground  long  enough  to 
cause  an  excessive  application  of  hen  manure,  which  is  very  con- 
centrated and  stimulating,  the  result  would  unquestionably  be 
beneficial,  l-'rom  the  point  of  view  of  the  tree,  this  benefit  of  injury 
would  depend  upon  how  long  the  fowls  were  kept  around  the  tree 
and  the  maintenance  of  them  in  such  a  way  that  the  soil  should  not 
become  out  of  condition  physicalh^  or  too  rich  chemically  for  the 
satisfactory  performance  of  the  tree.  If  they  can  be  moved  fre- 
quentlj',  and  if  they  are  only  put  in  place  when  the  soil  is  in  such 
condition  that  tramping  around  the  coops  will  not  seriously  compact 
it,  the  presence  of  fowls  would  be  an  advantage.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  coops  are  to  be  kept  in  place  for  a  long  time  and  all 
the  ground  outside  of  them  crusted  and  hardened  by  tramping  and 
the  soil  under  the  coops  overloaded  with  droppings,  the  thrift  and 
value  of  the  trees  will  be  seriously  interfered  with. 

Caponizing. 

Can  three  to  four  month  old  cockerels  be  caponized  successfully  in 
summer,  and  if  so,  what  care,  feed,  etc.,  do  they  require  afterwards? 

The  birds  should  be  between  two  to  three  months,  not  over  four, 
unless  some  very  large  variety  that  matures  slowly.  Size  is  equally 
important  as  age,  and  a  bird  to  be  caponized  should  not  weigh  more 
than  one  and  a  half  pounds.  The  work  can  be  successfully  done  In 
the  summer  season,  but  the  fowl  must  be  kept  without  food  or  drink 
for  at  least  24  hours,  longer  is  better  and  keep  in  shady  place.    After 


238  One  Thousand  Questions  tn  Agriculture 

caponizing,  feed  the  bird  what  soft  feed  he  will  eat  up  and  let  him 

have  plenty  of  water.     Then  leave   him  to   himself  as   he  will   be   his 

own  doctor.      In  two  or  three   days  look  them  over  and  if  there  are 

any   wind-balls,   simply   prick   with   a   needle   to   let   the   air   out;   this 

may  have  to  be  done  two  or  three  times  before  the  wound  heals  up, 

but  after  it  has  healed,  treat  just  as  you  would  other  chickens  and 

feed  them  about  twice  a  day.     There  is  nothing  made  by  trying  to 

rush   nature;    it   takes   fifteen   months   to   grow  a   good   capon   of   the 

large   breeds.  _  rr.       ^         ^ 

Roup  Treatment. 

Up  to  a  week  ago  the  chickens  had  been  exceptionally  zvell  in  every 
zvay.  Noiv  they  seem  to  have  a  cold  and  a  running  at  the  nose  and  with 
it  a  bad  odor.  It  zvas  suggested  that  this  might  be  the  beginning  of  roup, 
but  I  see  no  swell-head. 

The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  roup  is  not  so-called  "swell 
head"  or  other  form  of  cold,  but  the  offensive  roupy  odor.  When 
the  cold  has  reached  this  stage  it  is  a  pronounced  case  of  roup,  and 
highly  contagious.  Separate  all  the  ailing  fowls  and  segregate  them 
in  comfortable  hospital  quarters,  warm  but  with  one  side  partly  open 
for  fresh  air.  Disinfect  the  quarters  of  the  well  fowls  by  spraying 
with  distillate  or  cheap-grade  coal  oil  and  sprinkling  the  floors  and 
about  the  houses  with  air-slaked  lime.  Use  some  simple  remedy  like 
coal  oil  or  permanganate  of  potash  to  cleanse  the  throat  and  nostrils. 
With  coal  oil,  first  wipe  the  eyes  and  bill  with  a  clean  cloth  dipped  in 
the  coal  oil,  then  inject  with  a  sewing-machine  oil  can  enough  coal 
oil  to  open  open  and  thoroughly  clean  out  the  nostrils.  If  the  throat 
is  afifected,  give  a  tablespoonful  of  sweet  oil  and  coal  oil,  half  and 
half,  two  or  three  times  a  day  until  relieved.  One  of  our  corres- 
pondents has  sent  us  the  following  treatment  with  permanganate  of 
potash  which  he  has  found  the  best  roup  remedy  he  has  ever  tried: 
Dissolve  1  ounce  of  permanganate  of  potash  in  3  pints  of  water, 
hold  the  fowl's  head  in  this  for  a  second,  then  open  the  beak  and 
rinse  out  the  mouth  in  the  solution.  Wipe  with  a  clean,  soft  cloth 
and  apply  a  very  little  witch  hazel  or  carbolated  salve  to  the  eyes, 
nostrils  and  head.  Repeat  the  operation  as  often  as  the  throat  and 
head  become  clogged  with  mucus.  Until  the  disease  is  eliminated 
from  the  premises,  keep  permanganate  of  potash  in  the  drinking  water 
of  all  the  fowls,  both  sick  and  well.  About  1  ounce  to  each  2  gallons 
of  water  or  enough  to  give  the  water  a  claret  color.  The  sick  fowls 
should  be  allowed  no  other  feed  but  a  little  stimulating  mash  three 
times  a  day.  Where  the  fowls  do  not  show  a  decided  improvement 
in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  or  where  the  disease  has  assumed  a 
violent  form,  all  such  birds  should  be  killed  and  the  bodies  burned 
at  once. 

Bad  Food  for  Chickens. 

My  chicks  are  about  three  weeks  old  and  have  always  been  strong 
and  sturdy,  but  when  taken  sick  first  appear  a  little  dumpish,  then  the 
head  seems  a  little  heavy  and  the  neck  lengthens  out.  As  the  disease 
advances  they  become  staggery. 


Poultry  Keeping  239 

Your  chicks  have  eaten  soured  food,  decayed  vegetables  or  tainted 
meat.  Baby  chicks  are  just  like  other  babies  and  the  same  care 
should  be  used  that  their  food  be  always  sweet  and  fresh.  Wet  food 
should  never  be  given  chicks,  nor  raw  meat  nor  anything  the  least 
bit  tainted  or  stale.  Put  a  teaspoon  of  coal  oil  in  each  pint  of  drink- 
ing water  and  see  to  it  that  the  latter  is  kept  pure  and  cool.  Mix  a 
teacup  of  sulphur  with  enough  bran  or  shorts  for  each  100  chicks, 
moisten  with  sweet  milk  and  feed  it  on  clean  boards,  what  the  chicks 
will  eat  up  clean  in  some  twenty  minutes.  Give  them  one  feed  of 
this  each  day  for  three  days  if  the  weather  is  dry.  Clean  the  brooders 
and  runs  daily,  then  dust  white  with  air-slacked  lime  and  cover  the 
lime  with  a  sprinkling  of  clean  sand.  Rake  and  clean  up  the  yards 
where  they  range  and  never  let  them  eat  any  of  their  grain  or  food 
out  of  dirt  and  filth.  You  cannot  doctor  such  small  chicks  and  must 
depend  upon  the  coal  oil  in  the  drinking  water.  Keep  the  water 
fresh,  but  add  the  coal  oil  until  the  chicks  are  relieved. 

Open-Front  Chicken  Houses. 

In  what  direction  shall  I  face  open-front  poultry  houses? 

North  or  northeast  is  the  proper  direction  to  face  the  open  fronts 
of  poultry  houses  and  coops  in  the  Pacific  Coast  climate.  The  pre- 
vailing winds  are  from  the  south  and  southeast  in  the  winter,  and 
from  the  west  and  southwest  in  the  summer.  The  occasional  north 
winds  or  "northers,"  may  be  called  dry  winds,  in  fact,  are  an  indica- 
tion of  dry  weather,  and  so  do  not  harm  the  fowls  even  when  cold. 
We  like  the  upper  half  of  the  north-end  or  slide  of  our  poultry  houses 
open  with  inch-mesh  covering  the  open  space  and  the  eaves  extend- 
ing several  inches  as  a  protection.  In  case  of  an  unusual  storm  from 
that  direction,  one  thickness  of  burlap  may  be  tacked  to  the  edge  of 
the  extending  eaves  and  to  the  lower  part  of  the  opening.  This  will 
admit  plenty  of  fresh  air  while  breaking  the  force  of  the  wind.  We 
also  have  a  large  trap  door  for  the  use  of  the  fowls,  in  the  solid 
lower  part  of  the  open  end,  and  the  large  door,  for  cleaning  and 
sunning  the  house,  in  the  west  side. 

A  Point  on  Mating. 

/  have  Unc  roosters  a  year  old  this  April;  would  you  advise  keep- 
ing them  for  mating  with  the  same  hens  next  season,  or  do  you  advise 
selling  each  year  and  getting  fresh  stock? 

The  young  males  will  be  all  right  to  mate  with  the  same  hens 
next  season — that  is,  if  they  come  through  the  molt  with  vigor.  They 
will  be  just  two  years  old  and  at  their  best.  The  molt  is  the  test  for 
both  hens  and  cocks.  If  they  show  no  signs  of  ailing  or  weakness 
during  that  period,  it  is  proof  of  the  proper  stamina  and  vigor. 

Age  for  Mating. 

At  zvhat  age  may  a   cockerel  be  mated  with  hens? 

From  nine  months  to  a  year  is  the  proper  age  to  mate  a  Leghorn 
cockerel.  Cockerels  of  the  larger  breeds  should  not  be  mated  before 
a  year  old. 


240  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

White- Yolk  Eggs. 

Why  are  eggs  watery  and  light-colored? 

The  trouble  is  in  the  feed  somewhere.  Too  much  green  feed, 
especially  green  feed  that  springs  from  wet,  soggy  ground,  will  some- 
times make  the  eggs  watery.  Or  if  you  are  feeding  more  mash  feed 
than  dry  grain,  it  will  have  that  tendency.  Some  people  claim  that 
the  feed  a  hen  eats  does  not  afifect  the  egg  at  all;  but  if  it  does  not, 
why  do  eggs  differ  in  color  and  quality?  Eggs  that  are  laid  by  hens 
fed  wholly  on  wheat,  or  the  by-products  of  wheat,  such  as  bran, 
shorts  or  middlings,  all  have  a  pale  yolk.  Now  feed  the  hens  some 
green  feed — any  kind  will  do — and  the  eggs  from  the  same  hens 
will  have  a  yolk  several  degrees  or  shades  darker. 

Poultry  Diarrhea. 

Will  you  kindly  tell  me  the  cause  and  cure  for  bowel  trouble  among 
hens? 

The  "quick  cure"  for  chick  diarrhea  has  not  yet  been  found.  Pre- 
vention is  the  only  sure  remedy.  The  first  treatment  in  diarrhea 
(which  must  not  be  confused  with  simple  looseness  of  the  bowels) 
should  be  a  mild  physic  to  clean  out  the  digestive  tract.  Epsom  salts 
is  probably  best  for  this  purpose  where  a  number  of  fowls  are  to  be 
treated.  This  is  usually  given  in  the  drinking  water,  but  Dr.  Morse, 
who  has  charge  of  the  investigation  of  poultry  diseases  in  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  gives  the  following  directions  for  administering 
the  salts:  "Clean  out  by  giving  epsom  salts  in  an  evening  mash, 
estimating  one-third  to  one-half  teaspoonful  to  each  adult  bird,  or 
a  teaspoonful  to  each  six  half-grown  chicks,  carefully  proportioning 
the  amount  of  mash  to  the  appetite  of  the  birds,  so  that  the  whole 
will  be  eaten  up  quickly."  For  a  few  days  afterward,  feed  only  lightly 
with  dry  grain  and  tender  greens,  such  as  fresh-cut  mustard  and  let- 
tuce leaves.  Keep  plenty  of  pure,  cool  water,  with  just  a  thin  skim 
of  coal  oil — one  drop  to  each  pint — for  drinking;  also  plenty  of  sharp 
grit  and  fresh  charcoal  broken  to  the  size  of  grains  of  wheat. 

Limber-Neck. 

A  very  peculiar  disease  is  taking  off  my  fowls.  The  head  of  the 
fozvl  bends  down  to  the  breast  and  fowl  looks  like  dead;  there  is  also 
a  slight  discharge  from  the  mouth.  The  head  and  tail  droop  and  if  the 
fowl  could  stand  up  they  would  almost  touch. 

When  a  fowl  loses  partial  or  entire  control  of  the  muscles  of  the 
neck  the  common  name  of  the  afifection  is  limber-neck.  In  medical 
science  limber-neck  is  regarded  as  a  symptom  rather  than  a  disease, 
and  may  be  due  to  a  number  of  causes,  such  as  derangement  of  the 
digestive  organs,  intestinal  worms  and  ptomaine  poisoning.  The 
affected  fowls  should  be  given  immediately  a  full  tablespoon  of  fresh 
melted  lard  or  sweet  oil,  to  which  has  been  added  a  scant  teaspoonful 
of  coal  oil.  In  an  hour  repeat  the  dose.  For  a  few  days  the  fowls 
should  be  fed  on  some  light  food,  such  as  shorts  scalded  with  sweet 


Poultry  Keeping  241 

milk  in  which  has  been  dissolved  a  level  teaspoonful  of  baking  soda 
to  every  pint  of  milk,  and  also  allowed  plenty  of  crisp,  tender  lettuce 
or  similar  greens.  A  little  Epsom  salts  should  be  added  to  the  drink- 
ing water  for  a  few  days.  This  treatment,  if  resorted  to  at  the  start, 
will  be  eflfectual,  but  if  the  poisoning  has  had  its  course  long,  nothing 
will  save  the  bird. 

Chicken  Pox. 

My  one  and  two-year-old  fowls  are  getting  scabby  combs.  It  starts 
with  a  round  blackish  spot  and  szvells  into  many  spots,  finallv  nearly 
covering  one  side  of  the  comb.  Sometimes  accompanying  this  is  the 
closing  of  one   eye,  and  later  both   eyes. 

The  trouble  is  chicken  pox,  which  is  a  very  contagious  disease. 
A  treatment  which  has  been  successful  consists  in  bathing  the  sores 
with  strong  salt  and  water  and  giving  the  fowls  a  mash  containing 
one  teaspoonful  of  calcium  sulphide  for  each  25  hens.  With  a  large 
flock  of  hens  the  method  successfully  employed  bv  one  of  the  large 
coast  ranches  in  stamping  out  an  epidemic  of  the  disease  was  to  place 
a  sulphur  smudge,  to  which  had  been  added  a  little  carbolic  acid,  in 
the  poultry  house  after  the  fowls  had  gone  to  roost.  This  was  allowed 
to  remain  till  the  fowls  began  to  sneeze,  when  it  was  instantlj'  re- 
moved. The  affected  fowls  were  also  treated  by  dipping  the  heads  in 
a  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash. 

Roup  in  Turkeys. 

My  turkeys  have  a  disease  that  is  spreading  rapidly.  They  commence 
with  a  running  at  the  nose,  have  swelling  under  the  eyes  which  are  filled 
with   pus. 

This  is  clearly  a  case  of  cold  developing  into  roup.  Get  one 
ounce  of  permanganate  of  potash  and  pour  a  quart  of  boiling  water 
over;  after  it  is  cold,  bottle  for  use.  Now  take  an  old  tin  can,  three 
parts  full  of  warm,  not  hot  water,  and  drop  in  enough  of  the  per- 
manganate of  potash  to  make  it  dark  red.  Hold  the  turk's  head  under 
in  this  can  until  it  needs  breath  then  give  it  time  to  breathe,  and  dip 
again.  Press  the  fingers  along  the  swollen  parts  towards  the  nostrils 
and  get  out  all  the  pus  you  can,  then  take  a  sewing-machine  oil  can 
and  fill  it  with  a  little  of  the  mixture,  and  part  olive  oil,  inject  the 
liquid  up  the  nostrils  and  in  the  cleft  of  the  mouth.  Put  a  little  of 
the  permanganate  in  the  drinking  water  for  all  the  flock.  Make  the 
water  a  light  red,  later  it  will  turn  to  a  dirty  brown,  but  don't  mind 
that. 

Disinfectants. 

What   can  I  use   to   disinfect  poultry   belongings^ 

Sulphuric  acid  spray  is  good,  but  you  will  need  to  be  very  care- 
ful that  you  do  not  get  it  on  the  hands  or  clothing.  Get  16  ounces 
sulphuric  acid  (SO  per  cent  solution),  water  6  gallons.  Have  the  water 
in  a  wooden  tub  or  barrel  and  add  the  sulphuric  acid  to  the  water 
very  slowly,  in  order  not  to  splash  it  on  the   flesh  or  clothes.     But 


242  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

mind:  nothing  but  wooden  vessels  to  mix  it  in.  When  made  accord- 
ing to  directions,  and  of  this  strength  it  is  a  very  valuable  disinfectant, 
but  is  dangerous  to  use  of  any  stronger  mixing.  After  mixing, 
it  can  be  stored  in  glass  bottles  or  earthenware  jugs.  Another 
very  good  disinfectant  for  poultry  houses  and  runs  is  the  formalde- 
hyde disinfectant.  Formaldehyde  1  pint  (40  per  cent),  water  2 
gallons.  This  is  fine  for  houses  that  you  can  shut  up.  Turn  the 
fowls  out  of  the  building,  close  all  windows,  and  spray  thoroughly, 
then  close  the  door  and  leave  it  do  the  work.  Air  well  by  opening 
windows    and    door    several    hours    before    the    fowls    go    to    roost. 

Cloth  for  Brooding  Houses. 

Would  some  good  grade  of  white  cloth  on  a  frame  do  as  well,  or 
would  it  be  better  than  glass,  for  a  brooder  house,  or  would  it  keep 
out   too   much  sun-heat f 

Cheesecloth,  not  heavy  cloth,  would  be  better  than  glass,  so 
far  as  the  sun  is  concerned.  There  would  be  none  of  the  over- 
heating during  the  middle  of  the  day  followed  by  the  chilling  at 
night  which  are  caused  by  a  large  expanse  of  glass.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  should  not  be  openings  on  opposite  sides  of  the  house 
to  create  a  draft.  Alro  the  rat  and  vermin  question  must  be  con- 
sidered. It  might  be  i^ec'ssary  to  have  wire  screens  made  to  fit 
firmly   over    the    cloth    at   night. 

Grains   for    Chickens. 

What  variety  of  grain  adat^tcd  for  poultry  food  unll  be  the  best  to 
grow,  ivith  and  also  without  irrigation  f 

Wheat  is  a  standard  grain  for  poultry  feeding,  and  Egyptian 
corn  is  also  largely  used.  Indian  corn  is  also  satisfactory,  under 
the  general  rules  for  compounding  poultry  rations  which  are  laid 
down  by  all  authorities  on  the  subject.  Egyptian  corn  is  very  suc- 
cessful in  the  interior  parts  of  the  State,  and,  on  lands  which  are 
winter-plowed  and  harrow  to  retain  moisture,  very  satisfactory  re- 
sults can  be  secured  by  summer  growth  without  irrigation  from 
planting   as    soon   as    frost   danger    is   over. 

Plucking    Ducks   and    Geese. 

/  would  like  to  know  about  how,  when  and  how  often  to  pick  old 
ducks  so  as  to  get  the  feathers  for  pillozus  and  not  kill  the  ducks,  either. 
Will  they  lay  any  eggs  ivhile  growing  new  feathers? 

Neither  ducks  nor  geese  should  be  plucked  until  after  the  lay- 
ing season  is  over,  which  will  be  in  July.  Just  before  the  moult, 
when  the  feathers  begin  to  loosen,  they  may  be  plucked  again. 
Those  most  considerate  of  their  birds  make  only  this  latter  pluck- 
ing, which  does  not  greatly  inconvenience  the  fowls.  At  no  time 
must  they  be  plucked  unless  the  feathers  are  "ripe";  that  is,  dry 
at  the  root,  so  that  no  bleeding  or  injury  to  the  skin  is  caused.     An 


Poultry  Keeping  243 

old  stocking  is  drawn  over  tlie  head  of  the  victim,  and  the  bird 
held  in  the  plucker's  lap  on  a  burlap  apron;  then  the  soft  feathers 
on  the  body  are  quickly  and  very  gently  removed;  but  those  on 
the  side  of  the  body  which  support  the  wings  should  not  be  taken. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  injure  the  skin  or  pinfeathers 
or  pull  the  down.  To  grow  new  feathers  quickly  and  resume  laying 
are  matters  which  depend  largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  bird 
and  the  feed.  The  latter  should  consist  of  some  15  per  cent  of 
animal    food. 

Feeding   Hens   for    Hatching    Eggs. 

Should  soft  feed  he  given  to  the  mothers  of  chicks  intended  for 
broilers.^  How  about  dry  mash?  How  would  you  advise  feeding  animal 
protein? 

Cut  out  all  ground  feed,  except  perhaps  a  little  wheat  bran. 
While  you  may  not  get  quite  as  many  eggs,  they  will  all  have  good 
strong  germs  and  the  chicks  will  stand  forcing  to  the  limit,  while 
if  you  force  the  egg  output  you  reduce  the  vitality  of  the  germs 
and  livability  of  chicks  hatched.  The  only  way  to  feed  hens  whose 
eggs  are  intended  for  hatching  chicks  for  broilers  is  to  feed  whole 
grain  and  make  them  exercise  for  it,  good  green  feed,  or,  better 
still,  sprouted  oats,  and  feed  beef  scrap  in  a  hopper  all  the  time. 
At  first,  while  it  is  new,  they  may  eat  more  than  you  would  give 
them  but  don't  mind  that  they  will  regulate  the  quantity  in  a  few 
days  better  than  you  can.  Get  a  good  grade  of  beef  scrap  and  keep 
it  in  a  hopper  that  will  not  let  rain  in  or  keep  it  under  cover  and 
feed  all  the  wheat  and  oats  they  require;  if  you  are  short  on  green 
feed  give  them  a  bale  of  alfalfa  hay  to  work  on. 

A  Dry  Mash. 

Will  you  give  a  formula  for  a  dry  mash? 

Wheat  bran,  500  pounds;  middlings,  200  pounds;  cracked  corn, 
200  pounds;  charcoal,  20  pounds;  alfalfa  meal  200  pounds;  bone  meal, 
150  pounds;  blood-meal  lOO  pounds;  meat  cracklings,  if  ground,  200 
pounds;  ground  oats  or  barley,  300  pounds.  Give  oyster  shell  separ- 
ately and  supply  fowls  with  good  sharp  grit. 

Depluming   Mites. 

My  chickens  are  losing  the  feathers  from  their  necks,  some  three 
inches  down  the  front  and  then  extending  around  the  neck. 

The  loss  of  feathers  is  probably  due  to  the  depluming  mite. 
Dust  well  with  buhach  through  the  feathered  portion  of  the  bird 
and  apply  carbolated  vaseline  to  the  bare  skin  and  the  edges  of  the 
feathers  where  the  insects  work.  Do  this  daily  as  long  as  needed. 
When  vaseline  is  not  on  hand,  a  mixture  of  coal  oil  and  sweet  oil 
applied  with  a  soft  sponge  squeezed  nearly  dry  does  as  well.  We 
would  advise  that  you  make  a  general  cleaning  and  spraying  of  j'our 
poultry  quarters,  nest  boxes,  etc. 


PART  IX.    PESTS  AND  DISEASES 
OF  PLANTS 

Control  of   Grasshoppers. 

This  cutinty  is  having  trouble  with  the  grasshoppers  as  are  other 
counties.  Would  you  kindly  inform  me  what  I  could  do  to  exterminate 
them  on  my  young  orchard? 

The  best  thing  for  grasshoppers  is  to  fix  up  a  lot  of  poison. 
This  is  made  in  the  proportion  of  40  pounds  of  bran,  2  pounds  of 
molasses  and  5  of  arsenic,  mixed  together  as  a  mash.  They  will 
take  this  wherever  they  find  it,  even  when  nice  green  leaves  are 
close  by,  but  it  has  to  be  kept  moist.  Grasshoppers  can  also  be 
reduced  by  driving  a  "hopper  doser"  over  ground  where  they  are. 
This  is  made  somewhat  like  a  Fresno  scraper,  but  is  much  longer 
and  the  bottom  is  covered  with  crude  oil.  When  disturbed  the 
hoppers  jump  up  and  fall  into  the  oil.  Besides  the  poison,  you 
should  also  protect  the  trunk  of  the  tree  to  prevent  the  hoppers 
from  climbing  up  it.  This  can  be  done  by  applying  tree  tanglefoot, 
or  putting  on  one  of  the  tree  guards  that  prevent  climbing  insects 
from  passing  up  to  the  leaves.  The  combination  of  poison  and  tree 
guards  will  give  you  about  all  the  protection  you  need. 

Sunburn    and    Borers. 

Please  state  the  best  remedy  for  keeping  the  borer  out  of  young 
fruit  trees. 

Sunburn  can  be  prevented  in  many  ways.  The  manufactured 
tree-protectors  are  good  if  they  are  light  colored  and  are  kept  in 
place  so  that  the  sun  does  not  scald  above  or  below  them.  Wrapping 
spirally  with  narrow  strips  of  burlap,  torn  from  old  grain  sacks, 
from  the  base  to  the  forking  of  the  branches,  is  also  good.  A  very 
effective  and  widely  used  miethod  is  to  apply  a  good  durable  white- 
wash which  may  be  made  of  30  pounds  of  lime,  4  pounds  of  tallow 
and  5  pounds  of  salt,  adding  the  salt  to  the  water  used  in  slaking 
the  lime,  stirring  in  the  tallow  while  the  slaking  is  in  progress  and 
hot.  and  then  adding  water  to  thin  the  wash  so  that  it  will  work 
well  with  pump  or  brush. 

Gumming  of  Prune  Trees. 

/  zvrite  to  ask  for  information  concerning  my  prune  trees.  They  are 
from  tzt'o  to  si.v  years  old  and  the  gum  is  exuding  from  them.  As  I 
notice  the  branches  dying  I  cut  them  out,  but  this  doesn't  seem  to  save 
the  tree.     I  zvould  appreciate  any  information  you  can  give  me. 

This  is  a  pretty  hard  matter  to  diagnose  from  a  distance.  There 
is  a  good  probability  that  the  trotible  is  caused  by  sunburn,  a  point 
you  could  determine  on  inspection.     Whitewash   would   be  a  protec- 


Pests  and  Diseases  of  Plants  245 

tion  agair.st  this  and  more  or  less  of  a  cure  also.  Furthermore, 
borers  may  be  the  cause,  which  can  be  determined  bj'  examining 
the  points  where  the  gum  exudes,  seeing  if  any  wood  grains  are 
present.  These  borers  should  be  dug  out  and  whitewash  applied, 
which  latter  also  protects  against  this  trouble.  Lastly,  your  ground 
may    be   drying   out,    which    also    you    can    determine    and    remedy. 

Borers  in  Olive  Twigs. 

There  are  quite  a  number  of  olive  trees  in  this  locality  that  have 
something  ivrong  with  them.  They  make  a  growth  of  iii>e  or  six  inches 
and  the  center  tzvig  dies  back,  then  it  sprouts  out  at  the  sides  and  makes 
another  growth  in  the  same  way.  This  makes  a  thick  bush  instead  of 
the  tree  coining  up  as  it  should. 

The  dying  back  is  caused  by  a  beetle  which  bores  into  the  twigs. 
The  twigs  above  the  point  where  the  beetle  enters  dies  and  then, 
of  course,  buds  come  out  from  healthy  wood  below.  No  treatment 
has  been  devised  against  it,  though  its  breeding  ground  is  limited 
if  all  dead  wood  and  brush  and  litter  is  cleaned  up  and  twigs  are 
cut  ofif  below  the  point  of  injury  whenever  the  work  of  the  insect 
is  seen. 

Raspberry  Cane  Borer, 

Can  you  tell  me  zvhat  to  do  for  my  Loganberries  and  raspberries? 
A  small  worm  got  into  them  in  the  nezv  grozvth  of  zvood  last  summer, 
right  in  the  tips  of  the  nezv  growth  of  zvood,  and  then  worked  down 
through  the  pith  of  the  wood,  and  as  fast  as  they  worked  down  the 
can  zvilted. 

This  is  the  raspberry  horn-tail,  or  the  cane-borer.  The  adults 
are  wasp-like  insects  about  a  half-inch  long  and  very  active.  They 
come  out  of  the  canes  in  spring  and  the  females  soon  lay  eggs  in 
the  tender  tips  of  the  young  shoots.  These  eggs  soon  hatch  and 
the  larvae  eat  their  way  up  toward  the  tip,  which  causes  it  to  wither 
and  die.  It  is  this  injury  that  causes  much  notice.  As  the  tip  dies, 
the  larvae  turn  and  go  down  into  the  canes,  as  in  the  sample  sent, 
also  injuring  them  greatly,  though  possibly  not  killing  them  for 
some  time.  The  only  way  to  attack  them  is  to  pinch  the  spots  where 
the  eggs  were  laid;  then  those  that  escape  and  cause  the  tips  to 
wilt  should  be  destroyed  by  cutting  off  the  tips  below  the  point  of 
injury  or  cutting  off  the  canes  when  they  show  damage.  Likewise, 
the  insects  work  on  the  wild  rose,  and  cutting  all  those  out  around 
a  place  will  prevent  enough  adults  from  developing  to  permit  little 
damage  to  be  done,  always  provided  the  berries  are  well  looked 
after. 

Control  of  Red   Spider. 

Can  you  give  directions  for  the  prcz'cntion  of  injury  by  the  red  spider 
to   almond  and   other  trees  in   the   Sacramento   valley? 

The  red  spider  on  almond  and  prune  trees  is  usually  controlled 
by  the  thorough  application  of  dry  sulphur  to  the  foliage.  On 
almonds   the   first   sulphuring  should   be   done   as   soon   as  the   leaves 


246  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

appear  in  March.  A  second  application  is  advised  from  the  1st  to 
the  10th  of  May.  A  third  application  should  be  made  from  the  1st 
to  the  10th  of  June.  Prune  trees  should  be  treated  as  soon  as  the 
spider  appears.  In  the  Sacramento  valley  this  usually  occurs  about 
the  first  week  of  July.  Full-grown  trees  require  about  a  pound  of 
sulphur  which  should  be  thoroughly  distributed  throughout  the 
foliage.  The  old  method  of  throwing  a  handful  of  sulphur  in  the 
branches  of  the  tree  or  on  the  ground  under  the  tree  is  valueless. 
The  use  of  a  blower  is  economical  in  large  orchards,  but  a  can  with 
perforated  bottom  is  frequently  used  on  young  trees  or  small  orchards 
with  good  results.  In  normal  seasons  the  spider  is  easily  contolled 
by  dry  sulphuring.  When  the  pest  does  not  yield  to  this  treatment, 
a    spray   is    recommended. 

Liquid  Spray  for  Red  Spider. 

Is  there  any  liquid  spray  I  can  use  in  my  spraying  that  zvill  kill  the 
red  spider  without   injuring   the  foliage   of   the   almond? 

A  liquid  spray  for  red  spider  is  made  by  taking  sulphur  30  pounds; 
lime  (reduced  to  milk  form  by  water),  15  pounds;  water,  200  gallons; 
or  use  commercial  lime-sulphur,  4  or  5  gallons  to  200  gallons  of 
water.  These  sprays  can  be  applied  v/ithout  injuring  the  foliage. 
They  are  more  expensive  in  labor  cost  than  dry  sulphuring,  but  are 
more   effective. 

Apple-Leaf  Aphis. 

/  am  sending  herewith  a  small  f'icce  from  one  of  my  young  apple 
trees.  If  you  can,  will  you  kindly  tell  me  what  the  insects  are  on  it, 
and  what  I  had  better  do  for  them? 

The  apple  twig  which  you  send  is  infested  with  the  eggs  of  the 
leaf  aphis  or  leaf  louse.  These  eggs  are  very  difficult  to  kill.  A  good 
thorough  spraying  with  lime-sulphur  might,  however,  get  rid  of  many 
of  them  and  would  be  good  for  the  trees  otherwise — diluting  according 
to  condition  of  tree  growth.  The  chief  campaign  against  the  leaf  aphis, 
however,  must  be  made  early  in  the  growing  season,  just  as  these  pests 
are  beginning  to  hatch  out  and  to  accumulate  under  the  laves  of  the 
new  growth.  They  should  then  be  attacked  with  properly  made  kerosene 
emulsion  or  tobacco  extract  with  a  nozzle  suited  to  land  the  spray  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  Unless  these  pests  are  attacked  early  in 
the  season  and  repeated  if  necessary,  your  apples  on  bearing  trees  v/ill 
be  ruined  so  far  as  they  attack  them,  being  small,  misshaped  and  worth- 
less. On  young  trees  the  destruction  of  the  foliage  is  fatal  to  good 
growth. 

Woolly  Aphis. 

Will  you  kindly  inform  me  what  you  consider  the  best  treatment 
for  apple  trees  affected  by  woolly  aphis? 

The  best  way  to  kill  the  woolly  aphis  on  the  roots  is  to  remove 
the  earth  from  around  the  tree  to  a  distance  of  one  or  two  feet,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  tree,  digging  away  a  few  inches  of  the  surface  soil, 
Then    soak   the   soil   around   the   tree    with   kerosene   emulsion,   properly 


Pests  and  Diseases  of  Plants  247 

made,  of  IS  per  cent  strength,  and  replace  the  earth.  Be  sure  you  get 
a  good  emulsion,  for  free  oil  is  dangerous.  For  the  insects  above  ground 
on  the  twigs,  a  good  spraying  while  the  tree  is  out  of  leaf  will  kill 
man3%  but  some  will  survive  for  summer  spraying,  and  for  this  a  tobacco 
spray  may  be   most  convenient. 

Blister   Mite   on  Walnuts. 

/  am  sending  you  some  walnut  leaves  with  some  swellings  on  them. 
They  are  very  plentiful  on  some  trees  here.  Is  the  trouble  serious  and 
will  it  spread? 

This  is  merely  Erinose,  or  Blister  Mite,  which  is  a  very  common 
trouble  on  walnuts,  but  does  not  do  enough  damage  to  call  for  methods 
of  control.  These  swellings  are  caused  by  numerous,  very  small  insects 
which  live  within  the  blisters  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  amongst  a 
felt-like,  heavy  growth  which  develops  there.  While  this  effect  is  very 
common,  it  produces  no  appreciable  injury  and  needs  no  treatment  for 
its  control. 

Scale  on  Apricots, 

/  would  like  to  know  how  to   check   the  scale  on  apricot  trees. 

The  most  common  scale  on  apricots,  the  brown  apricot  scale,  is 
usually  held  in  check  by  the  comys  fusca,  which  is  as  widely  distributed 
as  the  scale  itself.  If  it  gets  beyond  the  parasite,  you  should  spray  in 
w^inter  with  crude  oil  emulsion.  If  some  scales  are  punctured  or  have 
a  black  spot  on  top,  the  comys  fusca  is  busy  and  you  probably  will  be 
safe  enough  without  doing  anything. 

Fumigating  for  Black  Scale. 

/  would  like  to  know  the  best  method  of  eradicating  the  black  scale 
from  my  orange  trees,  whether  by  spraying  or  fumigation? 

Spraying  has  been  given  up  as  a  suitable  method  for  controlling  the 
black  scale  on  citrus  trees,  and  the  only  recognized  method  of  merit  where 
the  scale  is  bad  is  by  fumigation  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  You  should 
communicate  with  your  county  horticultural  commissioner,  who,  through 
inspectors,  will  see  that  you  have  a  good  job  done,  at  the  right  time 
and  at  as  moderate  price  as  is  compatible  with  good  work.  It  is  irn- 
possible  to  'eradicate'  the  black  scale,  but  there  is  a  great  difference  in 
the  amount  that  can  be  killed,  and  it  pays  to  have  a  job  done  as  near 
perfectly  as  possible.  Similar  methods  of  attacking  other  scale  insects 
on  citrus  trees  are  used. 

Finding   Thrips. 

Hozv  can  the  presence  of  pear  thrips  be  detected  in  a  prune  orchard? 
Will  the  distillate  emulsion-nicotine  spray  control  brown  scale  as  zvell 
as  thrips? 

You  can  find  thrips  by  shaking  a  cluster  of  blossoms,  as  soon  as  they 
open,  over  a  sheet  of  paper  or  in  the  palm  of  your  hand.  The  thrips  are 
very  minute,  transparent,  somewhat  louse-like  insects.  The  spray  you 
mention  would  probably  have  little  effect  on  the  brown  scale  which  would 


248  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

still  be  in  the  egg  state  and  under  cover,  at  the  time  the  early  spring  spray- 
ing for  the  thrips. 

Control  oi  Pear  Slug. 

/  am  sending,  under  separate  eozer,  some  samples  of  cherry  tree 
leaves  that  have  been  attaeked  by  a  small  snail  or  slug.  Kindly  let  me 
know  what  they  are,  and  how  to  rid  the  trees  of  them. 

The  creatures  you  speak  of  are  the  pear  slugs,  or  the  cherry  slugs, 
as  they  are  sometimes  known.  Although  sHmy,  like  the  big  yellow  slug 
that  is  a  pest  in  vegetable  gardens,  it  is  no  relation  thereto,  but  is  the 
larva  of  an  insect.  Its  olive  green  color,  slimy  appearance  and  the  way 
it  eats  the  surface  of  the  leaves  make  it  about  the  easiest  of  all  insects 
to  identify.  Parasites  and  predacious  insects  usually  keep  it  in  fair  con- 
trol. Whenever  artificial  methods  of  control  are  needed  the  slugs  can 
best  be  destroyed  b}^  sprinkling  dust  of  any  kind  upon  them.  If  you  can 
get  a  machine  for  sulphuring  a  vineyard  and  use  some  air  slaked  lime 
or  other  fine  dust,  it  will  fix  them  quickly  and  inexpensively,  though  any 
way  of  applying  dust  may  be  used. 

Cutworms  and  Young  Trees. 

What  method  should  be  used  to  proteet  young  fruit  trees  from 
cutworms  f 

Hoe  around  the  trees  or  vines  and  kill  the  fat,  greasy  grubs  which 
you  will  find  near  the  foliage.  Put  out  a  poisoned  bait  which  the  worms 
like  better  than  the  foliage,  viz.:  Bran,  10  pounds;  white  arsenic,  ^ 
pound ;  molasses,  J^  gallon  ;  water,  2  gallons.  Mix  the  arsenic  with  the 
bran  dry.  Add  the  molasses  to  the  water  and  mix  into  the  bran,  making 
a  moist  paste.  Put  a  tablespoonful  near  the  base  of  the  tree  or  vine  and 
lock  up   the   chickens. 

Control  of  Squash  Bugs. 

We  are  troubled  zvith  pumpkin  bugs.  Please  tell  us  what  to  do  for 
them. 

When  the  bugs  first  make  their  appearance  in  the  field  they  can  be 
easily  disposed  of  by  hand  picking  and  dropping  into  a  bucket  containing 
about  two  inches  of  water  with  about  one-fourth  inch  of  kerosene  on  top 
to  kill  the  bugs.  The  picking  should  be  done  in  the  morning,  as  the 
bugs  are  apt  to  fly  in  the  v/arm  part  of  the  day  and  scatter  where  already 
picked.  Two  persons  can  pick  over  an  acre  in  one  and  a  half  hours,  and 
two  pickings  are  usually  sufficient  for  a  season,  as  after  the  vines  begin 
to  run  over  the  ground  pretty  well  the  bugs  will  not  be  able  to  hurt  them 
much.  A  pair  of  thin  old  gloves  will  help  to  keep  ofif  one's  hands 
some  of  the  perfume  from  the  bugs.  The  sooner  the  work  starts 
the  fewer  bugs  to  pick.  Cleaning  up  of  all  old  vines  in  the  fall  and 
removing  litter  in  which  the  mature  bugs  hide  for  the  winter  will 
permit  less  eggs  to  be  laid  in  the  spring  and  there  will  be  fewer  bugs 
to  pick  as  a  result. 

The  Corn  Worm. 

Last  year  all  my  ears  of  corn  were  infested  with  maggot,  growing 
fat  thereon.     Can  you  help  me  scare  them  away? 


Pests  and  Diseases  of  Plants  249 

You  have  to  do  with  the  so-called  corn  worm  which  is  very  abun- 
dant in  this  State  and  one  of  the  greatest  pests  to  corn  growing.  It 
is  the  same  insect  which  is  known  as  the  boll  worm  of  the  cotton  in 
the  Southern  States.  No  satisfactory  method  of  controlling  this  has 
been  found,  although  a  great  deal  of  experimentation  has  been  done. 
Nearly  everything  that  could  be  thought  of  has  been  tried  without 
very  satisfactory  results.  A  late  planted  corn  has  sometimes  been 
free,  for  the  insect  is  not  in  the  laying  stage  then.  If  it  were  not 
for  this  insect  the  canning  of  corn  would  be  an  important  industry 
in  this  State. 

Melon  Lice. 

/  have  in  about  four  acres  of  ivatermclons,  and  there  seem  to  he 
lice  and  a  small  gnat  or  Ay,  and  also  some  small  green  bugs  and  zvhitc 
worms  on  the  under  part  of  the  leaves,  which  seem  to  he  stopping  the 
grozvth  of  the  z'incs,  viaking  them  wilt  and  die.  They  seem  to  be  more 
in  patches,  although  a  few  on  all  the  z'Ines.  Can  you  please  tell  me  what 
to   do  for  them? 

Melon  lice  are  very  hard  to  catch  up  with  after  you  have  let  them 
get  a  start.  Spraying  with  oil  emulsions,  tobacco  extracts,  soap  solu- 
tions, etc.,  will  all  kill  the  lice  if  you  get  it  onto  them  with  a  good 
spray  pump  and  suitable  nozzles  for  reaching  the  under  sides  of 
the  leaves.  The  gnats  you  speak  of  are  the  winged  forms  of  the 
lice;  the  white  worms  may  be  eating  the  lice;  the  "small  green  bugs' 
may  be  diabroticas.  If  you  had  started  in  lively  as  soon  as  you  saw 
the  first  lice  you  could  have  destroyed  them  in  the  places  where  they 
started.  Now  your  chance  lies  largely  in  the  natural  multiplication 
of  ladybirds  and  the  occurrence  of  hot  winds  which  will  burn  up  the 
lice.     It  is  too  late  probably,  to  undertake   spraying  the   whole   field. 

Wire  Worms. 

Is  there  any  zvay  to  destroy  or  overcome  the  destructive  work  of 
the  wireworm,  zvhich  I  find  in  some  spots  takes  the  lion's  share  of  crops, 
such  as  beans,  potatoes,  onions,  etc.? 

We  do  not  know  any  easy  way  with  wire  worms.  Nitrate  of  soda 
is  believed  to  kill  or  repel  them,  but  you  have  to  be  careful  with  it, 
for  too  much  will  either  over-stimulate  or  kill  the  kill;  about 
200  pounds  per  acre,  well  distributed,  is  the  usual  prescription  for  the 
good  of  the  plants.  Wire  worms  can  probably  be  killed  with  carbon 
bisulphide,  using  a  tablespoonful  poured  into  holes  about  a  foot  deep, 
three  or  four  feet  apart.  The  vapor  would  permeate  the  soil  and 
kill  all  ground  insects,  but  the  acre-cost  of  such  treatment  must  be 
measured  in  its  relation  to  the  value  of  the  crop.  The  most  promising 
policy  with  wire  worms  is  rotation  of  crops,  starving  them  out  with 
a  grain  or  grass  crop  and  not  growing  such  crops  as  you  mention 
continually  on  the  same  land. 

Bean  Weevil. 

Flow  can  I  keep  certain  insects  from  getting  into  my  dry  beans?  1 
have  finished  picking  the  crop.  Every  year  a  little,  short,  stubby  beetle 
gets  in  th&m  before  spring  and  makes  them  unfit  for  use. 


250  One  Thousand  Questions  in  Agriculture 

You  have  to  do  with  the  bean  weevil.  The  eggs  are  inserted  by 
the  insect  while  the  beans  are  still  green  in  the  pods;  subsequently 
the  eggs  hatch  and  the  worm  excavates  the  interior  of  the  ripened 
beans.  The  beans  can  be  protected  after  ripening  by  heating  care- 
fully to  130°  Fahrenheit,  which  will  destroy  the  egg,  or  the  larva  if 
already  hatched.  Of  course,  this  heating  must  be  done  cautiously 
and  with  the  aid  of  a  good  thermometer  for  fear  of  destroying  the 
germinating  power.  The  work  of  the  insect  can  also  be  stopped  by 
putting  the  beans  in  a  barrel  or  other  close  receptacle,  with  a  saucer 
containing  about  an  ounce  of  carbon  bi-sulfid  to  vaporize.  Be  careful 
not  to  approach  the  vapor  with  a  light.  After  treatment  for  one- 
half  hour,  the  cover  can  be  removed  and  the  vapor  will  entirely  dis- 
sipate. This  is  a  safer  treatment  than  the  heating.  Similar  methods 
of  control  can  be  used  on  other  pea  and  bean  weevils. 

Slugs  in  Garden. 

Can  yon  adTJse  me  how  I  can  get  rid  of  slugs  in  my  garden? 

When  barriers  of  lime,  ashes,  etc.,  are  ineffective,  traps  consist- 
ing of  pieces  of  board  sacking  and  similar  materials  placed  about  the 
field  prove  inviting  to  the  slugs.  They  collect  under  these  and  by 
going  over  the  field  in  the  early  morning  they  may  be  put  into  a 
salt-water  solution  or  otherwise  destroyed.  Arsenical  sprays  applied 
with  an  underspray  nozzle  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves  will 
help  control  the  slugs.  Poison  bran  mash  consisting  of  16  pounds 
of  coarse  bran,  2  quarts  of  cheap  syrup,  and  enough  warm  water  to 
make  a  coarse  mash,  is  very  good  for  cutworms  and  should  be  equally 
effective  for  slugs.  It  should  be  placed  in  small  heaps  about  thef 
plants  to  be  protected.  Cabbage  leaves  dipped  in  grease  drippings 
and  placed  about  the  fields  also  prove  attractive  bait  for  the  slugs, 
which  may  then  be  collected  there.  If  a  person  has  a  taste  for 
poultry,  the  keeping  of  a  few  ducks  may  solve  the  slug  problem  with- 
out further  bother.  Cultivation  or  irrigation  methods  that  give  a 
dry  surface  most  of  the  time  also  discourage  these  pests. 

Cause  of  Mottle   Leaf. 

What  is  the  cause  and  cure  of  mottle  leaf  of  citrus  trees? 

There  are  apparently  a  number  of  causes  of  this  trouble,  all  more 
or  less  obscure  and  hard  to  overcome.  It  is  generally  thought  that 
it  is  due  to  poor  nutrition,  whatever  the  reason  for  poor  nutrition 
might  be.  The  presence  of  a  nematode  or  eel  worm  on  the  roots 
has  found  to  be  a  cause  of  mottle  leaf  in  many  cases.  Poor  drainage, 
too  sandy  soil  and  a  number  of  other  things  frequently  cause  it. 
Whatever  the  cause,  no  one  good  method  of  cure  has  been  found. 

Potato   Scab. 

/  think  most  of  my  potatoes  zvill  have  some  scab.  Will  you  please 
tell  me  if  my  next  crop  would  be  apt  to  have  scab,  provided  I  got  good 
clean  seed  and  planted  in  the  same  ground? 


Pests  and  Diseases  of  Plants  251 

It  seems  demonstrated  that  a  treatment  of  the  seed  will  prac- 
tically insure  against  potato  scab.  One  method  is  dipping  the  potatoes 
in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Dissolve  one  ounce  in  eight 
gallons  of  water  and  soak  the  seed  potatoes  in  this  solution  for  one 
and  one-half  hours  before  cutting. 

Gopher  Poison. 

/  haz'e  some  alfalfa,  some  hogs  and  some  gophers,  also  some 
strychnine  and  carrots.  If  I  put  the  strychnine  on  the  carrots,  and 
endeavor  to  poison  the  gophers,  and  the  hogs  get  hold  of  the  poison 
will  it  kill  them? 

You  will  find  that  hogs  are  liable  to  poison  like  any  other  animal, 
and  the  safest  way  to  poison  the  gophers,  while  the  hogs  are  run- 
ning in  the  field'  is  to  bury  the  poisoned  carrots  very  deeply  in  the 
gopher  hole  and  then  put  a  row  of  sticks  or  branches  over  the  mouth 
of  the  hole  so  that  the  hogs  cannot  root  around  and  get  at  the 
poisoned  carrots. 

Hov7   to   Make   Bordeaux. 

Use  copper  sulphate  (bluestone)  5  pounds;  quick-lime  (good  stone 
lime),  6  pounds;  water,  50  gallons.  Put  the  bluestone  in  a  sack  and 
hang  it  so  it  will  be  suspended  just  under  the  surface  of  a  barrel  of 
water  over  night,  or  dissolve  in  hot  water.  Use  one  gallon  of  water 
to  one  pound  of  bluestone.  Slake  the  lime  in  a  separate  barrel,  using 
just  enough  water  to  make  a  smooth,  clean,  thin  whitewash.  Stir  this 
vigorously.  Use  wooden  vessels  only.  Fill  the  spray  tank  half  full 
of  water,  add  one  gallon  of  bluestone  solution  for  each  pound  re- 
quired, then  strain  in  the  lime  and  the  remainder  of  the  water  and  stir 
thoroughly.  The  formula  may  be  varied  according  to  conditions, 
using  from  3  to  8  pounds  of  bluestone  to  50  gallons  of  water  and  an 
equal  or  slight  excess  of  lime.  Use  the  stronger  mixture  in  rainy 
weather.     Keep   the   mixture   constantly  agitated   while   applying. 

Formula  for  Lime-Sulphur. 

To  make  lime-sulphur  take  quick-lime,  20  pounds;  ground  sulphur, 
15  pounds  and  water  30  gallons.  Slake  the  lime  with  hot  water  in 
a  large  kettle,  add  the  sulphur  and  stir  well  together.  After  the 
violent  slaking  subsides  add  more  water  and  boil  the  mixture  over  a 
fire  for  at  least  one  hour.  After  boiling  sufificiently  strain  into  the 
spray  tank  and  dilute  with  water  to  the  proper  strength.  If  a  steam 
boiler  is  available,  this  mixture  may  be  prepared  more  easily  on  a 
large  scale  by  cooking  in  barrels  into  which  steam  pipes  are  intro- 
duced. This  mixture  cannot  be  applied  safely  except  during  the 
winter  when  the  trees  are  dormant.  A  large  proportion  of  the  lime- 
sulphur  used  in  the  State  is  purchased  already  prepared  in  more 
concentratd  form. 


INDEX 


FRUIT   GROWING.  PagE 

Almond — Grafting  on  Peach 31,  33 

Pruning 31 

Budding  and  Grafting 31,  32 

Planting 32 

Pollination 32,  34 

Roots  for 32 

Longevity  of 33 

Seedlings 33 

Do  Not  Plant  in  Place 33 

Stick-Tights 34 

And  Peach 33 

Apples — Shy-Bearing 24 

Not  on  Quince 24 

Stock  For 24 

And  Alfalfa 25 

Top  Grafting 25,  27 

Mildew  on  Seedlings 25 

Pruning 25.  26,  27,  30 

Will  They  Be  Same  Kind 27 

Places  for 27 

Grafting  in  Place 28 

Resistant  Roots 28 

For  Hot  Place 28 

Die-Back  of 29 

Storage  of 29 

Root-Grafts 29 

Apricots — Pruning 34 

Shy-Bearing 34 

Propagation 35 

Renewing  Old 35 

Summer  Pruning 35 

Bananas  in  California 23 

Berries — Pruning  Himalayas 70 

Hardiness  of  Hybrids 70 

With  Perfect  Flowers 70 

Pruning  Loganberries 71 

Strawberry  Planting 71 

Blackberries  for  Drying 71 

Planting  Bush  Fruits 72 

Strawberry  Plants 72 

Strawberries  in  Succession 72 

Gooseberries,  Limitations  of 72 

Carobs  in  California 23 

Cherries — For  Hot  Place 28 

Wild 36 

Pruning 36,  37 

Training  Grafts 36 

Restoring  Trees 37,  38 

Pollination 38 

Citron  Curing 58 

Citrus  Fruit — Temperatures 5 

Broken  Roots 18 

Filbert  Growing 64 

Figs — Suckers 38 

No  Gopher-Proof  Roots 39 

Trays,  Cleaning 23 


Pack 

Fruit  Trees — Depth  of  Soil 5 

What  Slopes 7 

and  Overflow 8 

Roots  for 5 

and  Sunburn 9 

Budding 10 

Starting  from  Seed 10 

Square  or  Triangular  Planting 11 

Planting  on  Clearings 12 

Dipping  Roots  of 12 

Preparing  for  Planting 12 

Depth  of  Planting 13 

In  Wet  Place 13 

Cutting  Back  at  Planting 13 

Branching  Young 13 

Coal  Tar  and  Asphaltum 14 

Regular  Bearing  of 16 

Avoiding  Crotches 17 

Crotch-Splitting 17 

Strengthening 17 

Covering  Wounds 18 

Covering  Sunburned  Bark 18 

Gravel  Streak 8 

Transplanting  Old 20 

Dwarfing 20 

Seedling 20 

Filling  Holes  in 21 

Deferring  Bloom 21 

Repairing  Rabbit  Injuries 21 

Crops  Between 15 

Scions  for  Mailing 11 

Scions  from  Youag  Trees 16 

Whitewashing 14 

Deciduous  Planting 9 

On  Coast  Sands 6 

Over  Underflow 7 

Grapefruit  and  Nuts 61 

Grapes — Dry  Farming 73 

Cutting  Frosted  Canes 73 

Dipping  Seedless 73 

Zante  Currant 73 

Vines  for  Arbor 74 

Pruning  Old  Vines 74 

Bleeding  Vines 75 

Scant  Moisture 75 

Sulphuring  for  Mildew 75 

Sugar  in  Canned 75 

Planting 18 

Grafting 20 

Wax 15 

June  Drop 8 

Killing  Moss  on  Tree 23 

Interplanting,  Wrong  idea 6 

Lemons — Citrus  Budding 60 

No  Citrus  Fruits  on  Roots 60 

Mulberries,  Pruning  and  Grafting 70 

Nursery  Stock  in  Young  Orchard 11 


Index 


253 


Page 

Orchard — Replanting <> 

Plowing  in  Voung 15 

Pigs  in 39 

Forage  Under  Sprayed  Trees 11 

Oranges — Water  and  Frost 54 

Thinning 54 

Wind-Blown  Trees 55 

Handling  Balled  Trees 55 

Navel  Not  Thornless 55 

Over-Size 55 

Budding  or  Grafting  in  Orchnrd,56,  60,  61 

Under-Pruning  Trees 56 

Keeping  Trees  too  Low 5  7 

Dying  Back  of  Trees 57 

Young  Trees  Droppin,T;  Fruit 57 

Training 58 

Crops  Between  Trees 58 

Navels  and  Valencias 59 

Seedlings 59 

Acres  to  One  Man 59 

Roots  for  Trees 60 

Soil  and  Situation 62 

Transplanting 62 

Protecting  Yotmg  Trees 62 

Not  on  Osage 62 

No  PoUenizer  for  Navels 6^? 

Water  and  Frost 63 

Frosted.  What  to  do 63 

Pruning  Frosted  Trees 63 

Pruning 64 

Olives — Cultivating 49 

Moving  Old  Trees 49 

Darkening  Pickled 50 

Seedlings  Must  Be  Grafted 50 

Oranges  and  Peppers 50 

Budding  Seedlings 5 1 ,  54 

Old 51 

from  Small  Cuttings 51 

Large  Cuttings 52 

Trimming  Up 52 

Canning 52 

Renewing  Trees 52 

Growing  from  Seed 53 

Neglected  Trees 53 

Peaches — Lye-peeling 42 

Aged  Trees 42 

Renewing  Orchard 43 

Will  He  Have 43 

Fillers  in  Apple  Orchard 44 

Grafting  on  Almond 44 

on  Apricot 44 

Replanting  after  Root  Knot 44 

Buds  in  Bearing  Trees 45 

Pollen  Must  Be  Same  Kind 45 

Grafting  on 45 

Young  Trees  Fail  to  Start 46 

Planting  in  Alfalfa  Sod 46 

Pecan  Growing 64 

Pears — Pollination  of  Bartletts 39,  42 

Comice 39 

Not  on  Peach 39 

Dwarf  Pears 40 

Yield  in  Drying 40 

Problems 40 

Blight  and  Bees 41 

on  Quince 41 


Pagk 

Plowing,  Young  Orchard IS 

Plums — PoUenizing 49 

Prunes — On  Almond 46 

Re-grafting  Silver 46 

French  or  Italian 47 

Myrobalan  Seedlings 47 

Drying 47 

Sugar 48 

Glossing  Dried 48 

Price  on  Size  Basis 48 

Pruning — Times IS,  17 

Shaping  a  Young  Tree 14 

Late 16 

Too  Much 18 

In  Frosty  Places 19 

Low  Growth 19 

Are  Tap-Roots  Fssential 19 

For  a  Bark  Wound 22 

Bridging  Gopher  Girdles 22 

Roots.  Whole  or  Piece 9 

Soil,  Binding  Plant  for  Winter 22 

Spineless  Cactus  Fruit 23 

Stumps,  Medication  to  Kill 11 

Sucker,  What  will  it  Be 6 

Walnuts — Early  Bearing 64 

Handling  Seedlings 6S,  66 

How  to  Start 65 

Planting 65 

Pruning 6S,  66 

Grafting 66 

on  Oaks 66 

Eastern  or  California  Blacks 67 

Ripening 67 

Cutting  Below  Dead  Wood 67 

in  Alfalfa 68 

in  the  Hills 68 

Increase  Bearing 68 

Temperature  and  Moisture 69 

from  Seed 69 

High-grafted 69 


VEGETABLE    GROWING. 

Artichokes — Jerusalem 77 

Globe 77 

Growing 78 

Asparagus  Growing 78 

Beets — Leases  for  Sugar 82 

Topping  Mangel  Wurzels 83 

Brussels  Sprouts — Blooming 83 

Bean — Growing 78,  79 

Hoeing 79 

as  Nitrogen  Gatherer 79 

Yard-Long 79 

Why  Waiting 80 

Blackeye 80 

Are  Cow-Peas 80 

Horse-Benn  Growing 80 

Growing  Castor 81 

Inoculation 81 

On  Irrigated  Mesas 82 

California  Grown  Seed 76 

Cloth  for  Hotbeds 76 

Celery,  Blanching 83 

Chili  Peppers 88 


254 


Index 


Page 

Corn — in  Sacramento  Valley 83 

in  Warm  Ground 84 

Sweet,  in  California 84 

Cucvunbers — Forcing 84 

Growing 84 

Continuous  Cropping 100 

Ginger  in  California 85 

In  Cold,  Dark,  Draft 77 

Licorice  in  California 85 

Lentils,  Growing 86 

Lettuce,  Transplanting 86 

Melons — Winter 87 

Ripe 87 

Onions — Seeds  and  Sets 87 

Ripening 87 

from  Sets 87 

Crops  from  Seed 88 

Peas — Canada  for  Seed 86 

Growing  Niles 86 

Peanuts — Harvesting 88 

and  Adobe 89 

Potatoes — Cutting 89 

Planting 89,90,92 

Northern  Seed 90 

Planted  Early 90 

Balls 90 

Seed-ends 91 

and  the  Moon 91 

Planting  Whole 91 

How  to  Cut  Seed 91,  92 

Scab 92 

Double-cropping 92 

Keeping 93 

Yield 93 

New  for  Seed 94 

Growing 94,97 

After  Alfalfa 94 

Flat  or  Hill...  94 

B  ir!  Cora'J-u^  ''5 

Or;  \A.  &vy  i^^a.-u '5 

Storage  for  Seed 95 

and  Frosts 96 

Sweet,  Plant  Growing 96 

Growing 97 

Between  Trees 98 

Less  Water,  More  Heat 100 

Radish,  Giant  Japanese 98 

Rhubarb,  Rotting 98 

Soil  for  Vegetables 76 

Squashes  Dislike  Hardship 99 

Sunflowers,  Harvesting 99 

Tomatoes — Irrigating 99 

Big  Worms 100 

Loss  of  Bloom 101 

GRAIN    AND   FORAGE   CROPS. 

Alfalfa — Improving  Land 110,  121 

Cultivating 110 

Suburban  Patch Ill 

and  Bermuda Ill 

and  Salt  Grass 112 

and  Alkali 118 

on  Adobe 118 

and  Soil  Depth 118 

Irrigating 122 

Curing 119 


Pagb 

Preparation  of  Land 119 

Where  Grown 120 

Sowing 120,  121 

and  Foxtail 120 

Which  is  Best 120 

and  Dry  Land 121 

Inoculating 122 

Unirrigated 122 

Time  to  Cut 124 

and  Overflow 123 

No  Nurse  Crop 123 

Re-seeding 123 

Taking  Bloat  from 123 

What  Crop  for  Seed 124 

Siloing  First  Crop 125 

Soil  For 125 

Handling  Young 125 

With  Gypsum 126 

Alfileria,  Winter  Pasture 117 

Barley — California  Varieties IO3 

Chevalier IO4 

on  Moist  Land IO4 

and  Alfalfa IO4 

Beet  Sugar,  Home-made 136 

Beets  and  Potatoes IO5 

for  Stock IO5 

Stock,  Summer  Start 10s 

Berseem 138 

Bermuda  Grass Ill 

Objectionable II5 

Black  Medic 116 

Broom  Corn 131 

Buckwheat  Growing 134 

Clover  and  Drought 113 

for  Wet  Lands 113 

Crimson 116 

for  Shallow  Land 126 

for  High  Ground- Water 126 

Not  an  Alfalfa 130 

Sweet,  Cover  Crop 130 

Corn — for  Silage 105 

Irrigation  for 106 

Eastern  Seed 106 

Suckering 106 

and  Cow  Peas 107 

Cover  Crop  for  Hop  Yard 127 

Cow  Peas  in  San  Joaquin 128 

Cowpeas — Growing 128 

and  Canadian  Peas 128,  129 

Crop  Rotation 138 

Dry  Plowing  for  Grain 103 

Fail  Feed 109 

Forage  Plants  in  Foothills 114 

Winter 114 

Poultry 135 

Flax.  New  Zealand 136 

Grasses,  for  Baiik-holding 117 

Grass  Seeds,  Scattering 135 

Hay — Midsummer  Sowing 107 

Loose  by  Measure 107 

Oat,  When  to  Cut 108 

Rye  for 108 

Frosted  Grain H# 

Summer  Crop 114 

Heating  and  Fermentation 138 

Insect  Powder 137 


Index 


2S5 


Page 

Johnson  Grass 110 

Jersey  Kale 129 

Kafir  and  Egyptian  Com 133 

Lawns,  Mossy 135 

Moonshine  Farming 139 

Oats  and  Rust 107 

Pasturing — Young  Grain 102 

Hurry-up 110 

California  Winter 116 

Rape  and  Milo 130 

Rye  in  California 108 

Rye — Grass,  Italian 109 

better  than 115 

Speltz 109 

Spurry,  Giant 112 

Soil  Light,  Scant  Moisture 112 

Sunflowers  and  Soy  Beans 129 

Russian 134 

Spineless  Cactus 131 

Sorghum — Smutty 132 

Late  Sown 132 

Sorghums  for  Seed 133 

for  Planting 133 

Sacaline 134 

Special  Crops 137 

Teosinte 115 

Vetches — for  San  Joaquin 126 

for  Hay 127 

Wheat,  Seven-headed lOS 

SOILS.     FERTILIZING     AKD     IRRIGATION. 

Alkali    Soil    and   Trees    146 

Treatment    of     153 

and     Gypsum     153,   154 

Distribution      153 

Plants    Will   Tell    154 

and   Litmus    154 

Alfalfa    over    Hardpan    148 

Ashes    and    Tomatoes    157 

in    Garden    159,    160 

and    Poultry    Manure    161 

Blasting  or  Tiling    155 

Effects  of    155 

Barnyard  Manure  and  Alkali    163 

Bones   for   Grape  V^ines    167 

Can    a   Man    Farm    140 

Charcoal,    Medicine,    not    Food 175 

Cover    Crop,    Best    Legume    176 

Cowpeas,    best   cover   crop    177 

Cementing    Soils,    Improvement    ....  178 

Cultivation,    Depth    of     147 

Draining  Wet   Spot    188 

Dry   Plowing    144 

Treatment     144 

and   Sowing    152 

Dynamite,    More   Needed    149 

Electro-Agriculture     147 

Fenugreek  as   Cover   Crop 178 

Fertilizer   in   Tree   Holes    157 

Best    for    Sand    157 

Prunings  as    158 

Suburban  Wastes   162 

Composting   Garden    Wastes    163 

for    Sweet   Potatoes    166 


Pagi 

Pear   Orchard    167 

Olives     167.   168 

Consult    Trees    168 

Nursery     ]  68 

Almond    Hulls   and    Sawdust 169 

Fruit    Trees    169 

Oranges     170 

Seed    Farm    Refuse    170 

Slow    Stuff     171 

Alfalfa     171 

Corn     172 

Scrap    Iron     172 

Kelp    as    172 

Nitrate   of   Soda    174 

Strawberries     1 74 

Ground    Water    142 

Gypsum  on   Grain   Land    158 

and   Alfalfa    158 

What   it    Does    159 

How    Much    159 

Garden   Peas   for   Green    Manure.  ...  177 

Grape    Pomace,    Handling    165 

Abuse   of    166 

Hardpan   and   Low   Water    147 

Humus   Burning  Out    175 

Straw    for     176 

Irrigating    Palms     ISO 

Condensation    for     181 

Winter     181 

Young   Trees    184 

Alfalfa     186 

How   Much  for  Crops    186 

Sewage    187 

Creamery    Wastes     187 

House    Waste    1 SS 

Intensive    Cultivation     140 

Irrigate  or  Cultivate    181 

Irrigation,    Underground    184 

of  Potatoes     185 

of  Apples    185 

of  Walnuts     !8S 

Summer  and  Fall    18S 

and    Fertilizers    18<i 

Liming  Chicken   Yard    160 

Legumes,   Two   in    Year    179 

Lime,    Caustic   not   Absorbent    161 

on    Sandy    Soil    171 

Alfalfa     171 

Sugar    Factory    Fertilizer    173 

Manure,    Water,    Cultivation    145 

Ashes      156 

Poultry    160 

too   Much    161 

Stable  and  Bean   Straw    163 

Pit    Roofing    163 

Value   of   Animals    164 

Fresh  and  Dry 164 

and  Shavings 164 

Sheep,    and   Goat    165 

Hog   and    Potatoes    165 

Vineyard     166 

and    Nitrate    173 

with   Clover   1 77 

Nitrate,    Late    Applications    of 174 


256 


Index 


Page 

Oranges  Over  Ground   Water HI 

Organic   Matter,   Needs    178 

Oranges,  How   Much  Water 182 

Damping   Off    182 

Planting   in    Mud    14o 

Potash   or    Water    157 

Reviving   Blighted  Trees    167 

Soils  and  Oranges   1^1 

Crop    Changes     143 

Moisture   Defects    143 

Refractory    145 

Suitable   for   Fruits    148 

Blowing    149 

Improving    Heavy    150 

Reclaimed   Swamp    150 

Improving  Uncovered    151 

Sand  for  Clay    151 

Sour    156 

and   Old   Plaster    156 

Handling    Orchard    179 

Depth    for   Citrus    '41 

Summer  Fallow    142,  143 

Sub-soil,    Plow    for    15^ 

Stable   Drainage   for   Fruit    1/0 

Seeds,    Soaking    180 

Trees  over   High-water    H^' 

Plowing  toward   or   from    151 

Irrigated  or  not    1|3 

Too  Much  Water    183 

Too  Little  Water   183 

Thomas    Phosphate,    Applying    173 

Water,   Artesian    15-- 

from  Wells  or  Streams 180 


LIVE    STOCK    AND    DAIRY. 

Buttermilk  Paint  J'^ 

Butter  Going  White   J^" 

Fat,   What   it   is    190 

Why  not  Come   J^j 

Fat  in  Cream   f^^ 

Breeding,   Young  Mare    J^j 

in  Purple   194 

Line     ]l^, 

Cream  That  Won't   Wlnp    19-^ 

Cows  in  Hill   Country    194 

Concrete  Stable  Floor    \^' 

Drying   Persistent    Milker    1^1 

Foot-hill   Dairy    194 

Free    Martin    '■^^ 

Grade,   What  it  is    193 

Granary.    Rat-proof    l^{. 

Hogs,   Best   Breed    19/ 

Jersey,  Short-horn  Cross   i^' 

Bad    Tempered    194 

Legal  Milk  House    1«^ 

Milk,     Strong Jg^ 

Separator  as  Purifier    i^" 

Certified     ... • {^" 

Self-Milker,    Cure    for    189 

Silos,   Heating  not   Dangerous IV/ 

Shingles.   Make   Durable    197 

Trespassing   Live   Stock    I^/ 


Page 

Whitewashes   for   Buildings    195 

Government      19" 

for   Spray    196 

FEEDING      FAKM      ANIMALS 

Alfalfa   and    Concentrates    202 

Barley,   Rolled  for  Cows    ^U' 

for    Hay    Feeding     200 

Brewers'    Grains   for   Cows    2U/ 

Balanced    Rations    ■j-^^ 

Corn  Stalks  and  Concentrates ^01 

Cut  for  Silage   205 

Calves,    Feeding     204 

Feed    for    Cows    • 200 

Family    Cow     ^07 

Young  Pigs    ••••■••••••; ^09 

Grape  Pomace  as  Hog  Feed   209 

Grain    for   Horses    203 

Plorses,   Vetch   for    ■  •  •  •  •  19^ 

Horse    Beans    and    Melons    208.  ^OV 

Hay,   Salting    f^° 

Chopping  for  Horses fJ^ 

Cut   Alfalfa    203 

Storing   Cut  Alfalfa    203 

Grinding 204 

Kale  for  Cow  Feed   208 

Plow  Horses,  Feed  for    i^'i 

Pumpkins,    Feeding    ff^L 

Keeping     ^"! 

Pasture  and   Cover  Crop    203 

Fall  and  Winter  203 

Summer    for   Hogs    ^06 

Pigs  and  Pie-Melons   ^"n 

Grain  or  Pasture  for    210 

Growing  on   Roots    210 

Sheep,    Winter    Feeding    204 

Sorghum,   Feeding    199 

Silage     5", 

Dry  Fodder    202 

Sugar  Beets  and  Silage   201 

Stover ••; ini 

Stock  Beets,  Storing   ^"» 

Kind   of 208 

Spelt,    Value   of    201 

Steers    on    Alfalfa    202 

Silo,   Size  of    206 

Soiling    Crops    ■■■■■■■ 206 

Wheat  or  Barley  for  Hogs    ^JU 

for   Feeding   211 

DISEASES    OF    ANIMALS. 

Abscess  of  Gland    212.  219 

Abnormal    Thirst    ^ J^ 

Bloat,    Easement    ^\^ 

Bowel    Trouble    %i,^ 

Bloody   Milk    ^i2 

Barren   Heifers    ^" 

Blind   Teat    j,'^ 

Bovine    Rheumatism    ^^^ 

Bleeding  for  Blackleg   ViV^f? 

Chronic   Indigestion    ^^'  i\i 

Castration    of   Colt    216 

Chronic   Cough    ^'■^ 


Index 


257 


Page 

Cowpox    225 

Calf  Dysentery    226 

Cleft  Hoof   218 

Cocked   Ankles    220 

Cleanse    Cows    22 1 

Caked   Bag    221 

Cow  Chewing  Bones   223 

Depraved    Appetite    215,227 

Dentist    Needed     215 

Dehorning     220 

Forage    Poisoning    212 

Fungus    Poisoning    218 

Fly  Repellants 232 

Flea    Destroyers    232 

Garget    221 

Gland   Enlarged    222 

Heaves     217 

Horse  with   Itch    214 

Horses   Feet,    Treatment    218 

Hog   Cholera    229 

Hog    Sickness    229 

Infectious    Mastitis    221 

Irritation    of    Udder     222,224 

Injury  to  Udder   225 

Kidney  Trouble   215,  216 

Lumpy  Jaw    222 

Lumps    in    Teat    224 

Loss   of   Cud    226 

Mange,   Is   it    214 

Mangy  Cow   221 

Musty  Corn  for  Pigs   231 

Nail    Puncture 218 

Neck    Swelling    223 

Pregnancy  of  Mare    219 

Paralysis   220 

Pneumonia   in   Pigs    229 

Paralysis  of  Sow    230 

Rickets  in  Hogs   230 

Scabby  Swelling    213 

Skin  Disease,  Fatal   213 

Scours     215 

Side-bone     217 

Shoulder    Injury    213 

Stiff   Joints    218 

Swelling  in  Dewlap   223 

Sterile   Cow    223 

Supernumerary  Teat   224 

Sore   Eyes    228 

in  Pigs    228 

Sow,   Over- fat    231 

Tuberculous    Milk    228 

Uterus,    Diseased    219 

Urination    Defective    227 

Warts    on    Horse    216 

Worms   in  Horse*    213 


Pace 

Wound,    Sore    216 

in   Teat    225 

Swellings     231 

POULTRY    KEEPING. 

Bowel  Trouble  in  Chicks   236 

Cure   for    Feather-Eating    235 

Cannibal    Chicks    235 

Caponizing    237 

Chicken   Pox    241 

Clipping  Hens    236 

Dipping    Fowls    234 

Disinfectants     241 

Dry  Mash   243 

Feeding    for    Eggs    243 

Grain    for   Chickens    242 

Liver   Disease    233 

Limber   Neck    240 

Melons   for   Fowls    234 

Open  Front  Houses   239 

Roup   Treatment    .  . 238 

in    Turkeys    241 

Quick   Roosters   and   Laying  Hens.. 236 

Preserving  Eggs    234 

Poultry  Tonic    237 

in    Orchard     237 

Point    on    Mating    239 

Poultry    Diarrhea    240 

Rupture   of   Oviduct    234 

Rape   for    Chickens    234 

Sunflower   Seeds   for   Chicks    235 

Teaching  Chicks  to  Perch    233 

PESTS     AND     DISEASES     OF     PLANTS. 

Apple-Leaf    Aphis    246 

Bordeaux    Mixture    251 

Bean    Weevil     249 

Borers  on  Olive  Twigs   245 

Blister  Mite  on   Walnuts    247 

Black  Scale,   Fumigation    247 

Cutworms  in   Young  Trees    248 

Control   of  Pear   Slug    248 

of  Grasshoppers    244 

of  Red  Spider   245 

of  Squash    Bugs     248 

Corn   Worm    248 

Gumming   Prune   Trees    244 

Gopher    Poison    251 

Lime-Sulphate    Formula    251 

Melon    Lice    249 

Mottle  Leaf,   Cause  of   250 

Potato  Scab  250 

Raspberry   Cane   Borer    245 

Sunburn  and  Borers   244 

Scale   on    Apricots    247 

Spray   for    Red    Spider    246 

Slugs    in    Garden    250 

Thrips,    Finding    248 

Wooly   Aphis    246 

Wire  Worms    249 


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